The El Nino Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction

Often blamed for any and all out-of-the-ordinary weather, El Nià ±o is a naturally occurring climate event  and the warm phase of the El Nià ±o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) during which sea surface temperatures in the eastern and equatorial Pacific Ocean are warmer than average. How much warmer? An increase of 0.5 C or more in average sea surface temperatures lasting 3 months in a row suggests the onset of an El Nià ±o episode. Meaning of the Name El Nià ±o means the boy, or male child, in Spanish and refers to Jesus, the Christ Child. It comes from South American sailors, who in the 1600s, observed the warming conditions off the Peruvian coast at Christmastime and named them after the Christ Child. Why El Nià ±o Happens   El Nià ±o conditions are caused by a weakening of the trade winds. Under normal circumstances, the trades drive surface waters towards the west; but when these die down, they allow the warmer waters of the western Pacific to seep eastward toward the Americas. Frequency, Length, and Strength of Episodes A major El Nià ±o event generally occurs every 3 to 7 years, and lasts for up to several months at a time. If El Nià ±o conditions will appear, these should begin to form sometime in the late summer, between June and August. Once they arrive, conditions typically reach peak strength from December to April, then subside from May to July of the following year. Events are categorized as either neutral, weak, moderate, or strong. The strongest El Nià ±o episodes occurred in 1997-1998 and 2015-2016. To date, the 1990-1995 episode is the longest-lasting on record. What El Nià ±o  Means for Your Weather Weve mentioned that El Nià ±o  is an ocean-atmosphere climate event, but how do warmer-than-average waters in the far-off tropical Pacific Ocean affect weather? Well, these warmer waters warm up the atmosphere above it. This leads to more rising air and convection.  This excess heating intensifies the Hadley circulation, which in turn, disrupts circulation patterns around the globe, including things like the position of the jet stream. In this way, El Nià ±o  triggers a departure from our normal weather and rainfall patterns  including: Wetter-than-normal conditions along coastal Ecuador, northwestern Peru, southern Brazil, central Argentina, and equatorial eastern Africa (during the months of December, January, February); and over the inter-mountainous U.S. and central Chile (June, July, August).Drier-than-normal conditions over northern South America, Central America, and southern Africa (December, January, February); and over eastern Australia, Indonesia, and the Philippines (June, July, August).Warmer-than-normal conditions in southeast Asia, southeast Africa, Japan, southern Alaska, and west/central Canada, SE Brazil, and SE Australia (December, January, February); and along South Americas west coast, and again SE Brazil (June, July, August).Cooler-than-normal conditions along the U.S. Gulf coast (December, January, February).

Natural Theology Was Under Deep Debate - 1806 Words

In the 20th century the question of natural theology was under deep debate. While the enlightenment had a deep confidence in gaining knowledge of God through observation of the natural world, this attitude was deeply criticised in both philosophy and theology. On the one hand Heidegger criticized this project as deeply ontotheological confusing the distinction between beings and the Being of beings. Moreover as a result of this enterprise, one was left with the philosopher’s God at best, a god to which one could not praise, pray to or sacrifice. On the other hand Barth lambasted it as denying the subjectivity of God, and submitting God to the same kind of being as humans, reducing the creator to the realm of the created while simultaneous denying the finitude and falleness of human rationality. For Barth there could be no â€Å"point of contact† and the analogy of being of the medieval period must be scrapped for the analogy of faith, an inbreaking from the top down miracle of grace . But while Barth claims Natural theology as an irrelevant for revelation, Natural theology is the condition of possibility of the human side of revelation. This will be shown through a critical examination of Barth’s doctrine of revelation, an appropriation of Jean-Luc Marion’s phenomenology of revelation and an exploration of Pannenberg’s theological method. In beginning to explore the possibility for a natural theology one must overcome its most powerful opponent—the theology of Karl Barth. AsShow MoreRelatedKant s Ethical Theory Of Abortion Essay1266 Words   |  6 Pagessince the U.S Supreme Court legalized abortion as a medical procedure, the topic of abortion has spurned several heated debates both socially and politically. In such a heightened contemporary context, it would be rather appropriate to consider the moral application of Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, one of the greatest minds in the eighteenth centuries, to the enduring morality debate over abortion. Setting the discussion regarding the morality and immorality of abortion within the Kantian ethics frameworkRead MoreClose Reading of Dr. Faustus1215 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Faustus, thou art damn’d!† Then swords and knives, | | Poison, gun, halters, and envenom’d steel | | Are laid before me to despatch myself, |   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  25 | And long ere this I should have slain myself, | | Had not sweet pleasure conquer’d deep despair. | | Have I not made blind Homer sing to me | | Of Alexander’s love and Oenon’s death? | | And hath not he that built the walls of Thebes |   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  30 | With ravishing sound of his melodious harp, | | Made music with my MephistophilisRead MoreDavid Humes Views On Natural Religion2294 Words   |  10 PagesIn Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, David Hume challenges the existence of God by presenting three different arguments from the perspectives of three philosophers. 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Organizational Issues in Global Context Method

Question: Discuss about the Organizational Issues In Global Context Method. Answer: Introduction The modern-day life of a global leader is more difficult than ever. They need to motivate a group of employees who are from very diverse backgrounds with different cultures, they need to increase the productivity, efficiency and achieve the targets set by the board. Externally, they must face a global environment which is complex and ever changing, shareholders are always on a look out for better opportunities they must give them a reason to stay by exceeding their expectations (Baum Oliver 2015). This all comes along with a consideration that they must work with people from different background who have very different ways of getting the work done. Jet travel opened an all-new frontier to do business, the constraint of time and reach was solved in an instant and then internet took it one step further. Organizations saw an opportunity to go global and set up businesses in countries which were even unheard off and earn even more income. But as organizations begin to diversify the problems they face also intensify such as employee issues, personal conflicts, company structure, team problems etc (Bartlett, 2011). clearly, no business model works best for all organizations because of the opportunities and challenges they face based on the kind of business they are in. Another reason why single model doesnt fit all the global companies is because of their different histories, culture, structure and management. Companies which have grown organically on its own without acquisitions have a potential of scale and scope and align different workforces under one roof but find it much more difficult to adjust their products and services as p er local needs. Whereas, the companies which have grown mainly on Mergers and acquisitions find it easier to tailor their products as per local needs but very difficult to align a workforce which comes from diverse background behind a single value system and strategy (Glaister, 2014). Being global brings clear opportunities and benefits such as building new markets, access to newer technologies, new suppliers, new partners and above all more income and profits. But being global also bring a set of issues such as factors to consider while going global, different models to follow in different countries, different legal environment and so on. This report aims to find out the issues which an organization faces in the global context. Factors that affect firms strategies while expanding International business is very different from business in home country there are host of issues which the company faces when going international which they dont have to face otherwise, some of them are: Standardization of products: The very first factor to consider when going global is the quality of the goods and services, firms going international needs to offer high quality of goods and services to maintain a strong foothold in the market. Every country has its own standards of quality that needs to be met to sustain in the market with high competition (Bleek Ernst, 2015). Quality without consistency is no good, companies along with good quality needs to maintain consistency in their goods, which means every product should be the same. To do this a dedicated quality control department needs to be set up to ensure quality check through rigorous product testing. Flexibility: When entering foreign markets, it is essential for the business to be able to change and adapt its marketing plans, production and business plans as per the market requirements. Drastic changes in the demand patterns might add to lot of challenges therefore, it is advisable to be open to new suggestions as every country has its own form of producing and marketing goods (Burgel, Murray, 2010). Companies have to adapt to local culture and trends to find an optimum balance between what it wants to achieve and the means to achieve them. Language and cultural differences: When expanding into local markets there are no such considerations to be taken as businesses are already acquainted with the culture but while expanding in the foreign markets it is of utmost importance to understand the culture and language. Employees of the organizations must learn new language or find a representative to guide the business growth strategies (Cavusgil Evirgen, 2011). There are instances when bold firm strategies have failed in marketing the product while subtle hints in some countries have done wonders. These differences can only be understood through research or by consulting local agencies. Market readiness: While entering newer markets its readiness plays a very important role in the success of the organization. There should be demand of the product which the organization is trying to sell, if there is no demand for the goods organization can suffer huge losses (Contractor Lorange, 2015). Another point is availability of substitute goods in the market, if there are goods which directly compete with the product of the organization and are available at a cheaper price it is very difficult to sustain. Therefore, before entering, analyzing the markets and formulating strategies accordingly becomes very important (Lindquist, 2015). Organizational Structure: Having an organization structure that is aligned to the local market is very important. Strategies which support the expansion plan needs to be clearly defined and implemented effectively. Some strategies include finding buyers for the products, setting up a local branch or foreign branch, selection of buyers if production is to be done locally, availability of raw materials, hiring local employees etc. Strategizing these decisions is a major factor to consider while expanding. Rules and regulations: Every country has its own set of rules and regulations regarding FDI, taxation, quality etc. which the business must consider and take care off before expansion and production process to go underway. It is advisable to consult a legal counsel in the host country to understand the nitty-gritties and then formulate the business strategies to make the process smoother (Lei Slocum, 2015). Investment and capital: International expansion is not an easy and cheap task, it does not happen overnight. Time and money are needed to take the business beyond the geographical markets. For expansion business, must have sufficient capital to infuse in the activities of the foreign markets. If the capital is to be raised various financial decisions are to be taken like, whether to raise equity capital or debt capital, what would be the Return on investment, what would be the payback period after having considerable amount of research it is to be decided if expansion would be a good decision or not (Geringer, 2015). Expansion model of firms from developed countries vs Firms from developed economies Corporations in developed economies have a greater advantage while expanding business because of the following reasons: Easy accessibility to capital: Corporations in developed economy such as US, Germany, UK have an easier access to capital because of their large business. Since the business already established in developed economies have a huge sales and profit due to higher purchasing power of the population. This allows them to invest huge amount of capital into expanding their business. They have deep pockets to absorb losses arising from the business in developing economies, these companies have the capacity to offset the losses in developing economies by the profits generated from the developed countries (McDougall, Shane, Oviatt, 2013). Corporations in developing economies do not enjoy such liberty as they dont have multiple income sources and must spare capital from the existing business therefore, they make decisions when they are certain of making profits. This limits their growth prospects due to shortage of capital. Strong Brand name: Corporations from developed economies enjoy a greater advantage in terms of their brand name, due to the wide existence in various countries and huge consumer base. Having a strong brand name helps in easy acceptability by customers in the host countries, high bargaining power with buyers, suppliers and even governments, ease in raising additional capital and existing confidence in the buyers. These corporations do not have to incur high marketing costs to increase awareness about their products as they are already very famous in the international markets (Adler, 2007) and thus, creates a pull demand from the buyers in the host country. This also allows them to charge premium over their products. Firms from developing countries do not enjoy such privileges and must start from the scratch. By building their brand name and raise expensive capital. The only way to succeed and compete with such multinational corporations is to deliver products which exceed customer exp ectations and provide greater value for money. Strong technological prowess: Multinational corporations in developed economies have a strong technology in terms of its research and development, whereas the firms from developing economies do not have such technological advantage. Global multinational organizations constantly through its RD innovates newer products and processes which help them drive down costs and increase profit margins. This let them grow exponentially because of lower cost of production and easier access to markets. Firms even enjoy economies of scale which other corporations do not enjoy (Mahoney, Trigg, Griffin Putsay, 2011). Selection of foreign partners: Firms that enjoy strong brand name gets better foreign partners who have enough resources to invest in the business when it needs to increase the scale of operations, this is because multinational corporation brings technology which helps the local partners to grow and give global name for themselves. Whereas, companies from developing countries find it very difficult to find local partners whose mission align with theirs. This influences the model of expansion where multinationals increase its scale exponentially while firms from developing countries take it slow and expand only when they feel its the right time (Mohr Spekman, 2013). Backend infrastructure: Companies having operations in developed countries have a very strong back end infrastructure in terms of logistics, delivery skills, handling demand fluctuations and warehousing etc. this makes it easier for them when expanding into newer markets to replicate the existing systems with few minor changes. Firms in developing countries due to poor infrastructure do not have advantage over backend infrastructure but they have an advantage when it comes to adapting to the local needs and demand fluctuations. Because of lower per capita income and tough economic situations companies in developing economies have a competitive advantage and thrive in such environment which becomes difficult for the multinationals (Doutriaux, 2012). Companies from the developing economy avoid the traditional method to expand business by opening its subsidiaries, they either enter business in niche segment or they enter through MA in the host nation. As they usually do not have enough resources to build from the start. Most of the times it is seen such companies try to revamp the existing business which matches their business plans and enter through mode of acquisition (Glaister Buckley, 2011). Whereas, the firms in developed nations due to easier access to capital, technology, strong brand name, support from local partners and strong back end infrastructure follows a traditional approach of forming subsidiaries and expand into newer markets. Global organizational leadership issues: The global challenges of leadership within organizations can be very difficult within the context of global roles. As the leaders, must motivate a diverse workforce to keep ahead of the competitors and exceed the expectations of the stakeholders (Krubasik Lautenschlager, 2013). Managing Diverse Workforce: Due to firms operating in multiple locations throughout the world they employ people from different backgrounds of life, raised in different cultures, different educational qualifications and it becomes very difficult to align their interests with the organizational interest under one value system and strategy. Each employee has unique characteristic by a host of attributes such as experience, religion, social norms etc. To lead effectively the managers, need to understand the influence of such factors on the behavior in the functioning of the organization (Hamel, 2015). Distributed team members: In the global scenario where production happens in one country while marketing happens all over the globe, customer service executives are in one country while customers are all over the world. Raw material is sourced from all over the world. Managing all the verticals of business activities becomes very difficult because of different geographies and times zones (Hamel Prahalad, 2015). Managers must keep the communication channel clear and open especially when the face to face communication is limited. Managers often struggle in defining the clear roles and responsibilities because of which employees do not have clear idea to what is that they are responsible for. Since, employees in different locations have different reporting standards and officers it becomes extremely important to provide right leadership support to each one of them to keep them motivated. Managing Change within laws: Managers must understand the business, its products and must have an acumen to perform in the environment which is ever changing because of technology, consumer demands, competition and laws of hiring and firing in different countries. Temporary and part time workers play a very important role in todays work force. Laws regarding these workers differ from countries to countries. For ex. Indonesia, doesnt have a concept of part time workers they only recognize full time workers and have a law that part time workers are entitled to same benefits as the full-time workers. Such issues are of concern for organizations which work in different countries as they must adhere to different laws of the lands. Global issues in International marketing: The main motive of any business organization is to earn profit which is only possible if the product succeeds in creating demand for itself and for that it is very necessary to create marketing strategies. But before creating those the following factors are to be taken into consideration: Language: Language here in particular refers to translation, companies needs to pay very close attention when marketing their products in the countries other than home country. There have been various cases where companies had to face serious financial losses because of advertising mistakes. For ex when Coca-Cola entered china the name translated to bite the wax tadpole because of which they never really succeed in entering the Chinese market later after the research they had to launch a campaign telling the meaning. General motors suffered the same with their car named Nova which meant it wont go in North America and it was complete failure. Therefore, when entering foreign countries, it is advisable to research and then market the products accordingly (Jones-Evans Westhead, 2014). Taste: Entering the foreign markets for some companies can be very difficult because of the countrys eating habits. McDonalds and KFC who globally serve only non-veg menus had to change their complete menu and add veg burgers and remove beef burgers from their original menu as in India beef consumption is considered off limits. Therefore, adaptability is necessary to enter such markets (Mitchell, K. Singh, 2014). Regional values: Many times, a country may have an extreme regional difference which are to be taken into account when entering such countries. For ex in Canada they have a large French speaking population in Montreal and Quebec that are very different in cultures than rest of the country which speaks English, therefore, companies have to individually target these two regions by marketing the products in French. Investment restrictions: Many countries like India have restrictions on the amount of FDI which can be brought in by the companies. For ex Walmart from last so many years has been trying to enter Indian market. But Indian regulations of not more than 51% FDI is allowed in multi Brand retail, also out of all the raw materials purchased by the company 30% must be sourced from Indian enterprises which Walmart is not agreeing to therefore, such issues are hindrances towards the entry of Walmart in Indian market. Companies which comply to such regulations can do business in such countries (Trompenaars, 1997). As technology gets more advanced the world has become more closer and becoming smaller day by day. The business or companies that market their product and services effectively in foreign markets, gain from the huge potential that they offer them. Therefore, the marketing team of the companies must consider the following factors before deciding upon the marketing strategies (Eisenhardt, 2015). Conclusion: Organizations now a day are going global with all the benefits that come from going international there are hosts of factors which an organization must consider before entering foreign nations such as standardization of products, investment and capital, market readiness, organizational structure and also rules and regulations of different lands. Organizations from developed nations and developing nations both are expanding their business but have different models of expansion because of the environment in which they function are completely different. Firms from developed markets have an easier access to capital, a strong brand name, better technology, easy availability of local partner and better backend infrastructure, whereas, firms in developing nations have a better adaptability towards local situations which helps them formulate strategies which suit the local needs (Mowery, D. C., I. E. Oxley Silverman, 2014). Doing business in different countries also bring host of issues for the organizational leadership such as managing the diverse workforce which belongs to different cultures and backgrounds, with globalization different verticals of organizations are in different countries creating coordination between verticals a difficult task as they are situated in different geographical time zones and face to face interaction is negligible. With such a fast-moving environment, the laws of the land also change which must be complied by the organizations. There would be no existence of the companies if they wont earn profits and that is possible by successful marketing of the products which can be done by taking care of following factors such as taste, language, regional values and investment restrictions. For an organization to be successful all the above-mentioned factors are to be taken care off and then strategies to enter foreign markets are to be formulated. References Adler, N. (2007) International dimensions of organizational behaviour, 5th ed., South-Western College Publishing, Cincinnati.Hofstede, G. (1994) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind - Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival, Harper-Collins, London Baum, J. A. C., and Oliver C. (2015). Institutional linkages and organizational mortality. Administrative Science Quarterly, 36, 187-218. Bartlett, C. (2011) Transnational Management: Text, cases and readings in cross-border management, 6th ed., 658.049 BAR.6 Bleek, J., and Ernst, D. (2015). The Way to Win in Cross-Border Alliances. Harvard Business Review, Nov.-Des, 127-135. Burgel, O., and Murray, G.C. (2010). The International Market Entry Choices of Start-up Companies in High-technology Industries. Journal of International Marketing, 8 (2), 33-62. Cavusgil, S. T., and Evirgen, C. (2011). Use of expert systems in international marketing. An application for co-operative venture partner selection. European Journal of Marketing, 31 (1), 73-86. Contractor, F. J., and Lorange, P (2015). Why should firms cooperate? The strategy and economics basis for cooperative ventures. In Cooperative Strategies in International Business, F.J. Contractor and P. Lorange, eds., Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 1988, 330. Doutriaux, J. (2012). Emerging high-technology firms: how durable are their comparative start-up advantages. Journal of Business Venturing. 7 (4), 303-322. Eisenhardt, K. M. (2015). Building Theories from Case Study Research. Academy of Management Review, 14 (4), 532-550. Geringer, M. J. (2015), Strategic Determinants of Partner Selection Criteria in International Joint Ventures, 22 (4), pp. 41-63. Glaister, K. W. (2014). UK-Western European Strategic Alliances: Motives and Selection Criteria. Journal of Euro-marketing, 5 (4), 5-36. Glaister, K. W., and Buckley, P. J. (2011). Task-related and Partner-related Selection Criteria in UK International Joint Ventures. British Journal of Management, 8, 199-222. Hamel G. (2015). Competition for competence and inter partner learning within international strategic alliances. Strategic Management Journal, 12 (1), 83-103. Hamel, G., and Prahalad C. K. (2015). To revitalize corporate performance, we need a whole new model of strategy. Harvard Business Review, May-June 7(3), 63-76. Jones-Evans, D., and Westhead, P. (2014). The high technology small firm sector in the UK. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour, 2 (1), 15-35. Krubasik, E., and Lautenschlager, H. (2013) Forming Successful Strategic Alliances in High-Tech Businesses. In Collaborating to Compete, J. Bleeke and D. Ernst, eds., John Wiley Sons Inc., New York, 1993. Lei, D., and Slocum Jr. J. (2015). Global Strategic Alliances: Payoffs and Pitfalls. Organizational Dynamics, 19 (3), 44-62. Lindquist, M. (2015). Infant Multinationals. Institute of International Business. Stockholm School of Economics, Sweden. Mahoney, D., Trigg, M., Griffin, R., and Putsay, M. (2011). International Business; A managerial perspective (2nd edn). Pearson Education, Australia. McDougall, P.P., Shane, S., and Oviatt, B.M. (2013). Explaining the Formation of International New Ventures: The Limits of Theories from International Business Research. Journal of Business Venturing. 9 (6), 469-487. Mitchell, W., and K. Singh (2014). Survival of businesses using collaborative relationships to commercialize complex goods . Strategic Management Journal, 17(3), pp. 169-195. Mohr, J., and Spekman, R. (2013). Characteristics of Partnership Success: Partnership Attributes, Communication Behaviour, and Conflict Resolution Techniques. Strategic Management Journal, 15 (2), 135-152. Mowery, D. C., I. E. Oxley., and B. S. Silverman (2014). Strategic alliances and inter-firm knowledge transfer. Strategic Management Journal, Winter Special Issue, 17, 77-91. Trompenaars, F. (1997) Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, 2nd ed, Economist Books, London.Zhu, C. Dowling, P. (2000) Managing People during Economic Transition: The Development of HR Practices in China, Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 38(2)

Margaret Atwood Essays (2558 words) - Margaret Atwood,

Margaret Atwood Margaret Atwood is a widely recognized literary figure, especially known for her themes of feminism. Her novels, including Alias Grace and The Handmaids Tale are widely known for their feminist subject matter, and one finds the same powerful themes within her poetry. Judy Klemesrud, in her article for The New York Times, once made the wise acknowledgement that People follow her on the streets and in stores, seeking autographs and wanting to discuss the characters in her novels- most of whom are intelligent, self-absorbed modern women searching for identity. These women also suffer greatly, and as a result, some Canadian critics have dubbed her the high priestess of angst(March 28, 1982). Indeed, Margaret Atwood has a talent for the conscience feministic perspective, and the tone of much of her work seems to indicate her sense of political responsibility. Her poem Spelling, for example, is a testament to the power of words and it depicts the victimization of powerlessness of women wit hout language. Atwood describes her daughter on the floor, learning how to spell for the first time, and then leads the reader through a history of persecuted, helpless women. For instance, Atwood depicts the woman caught in the war/ (803). Such disturbing portrayals of women have earned Atwood the reputation as a daring feminist. Yet it is important to recognize that her poetry is not just about feminist themes, it is also an exploration into the depths of human consciousness and loneliness. This consciousness, paired with her curiosities about the power of language, is seen in many of her poetic themes. Atwood focuses on different literary and artistic genres in her poetry, ranging from postcards to photographs to magazine depictions of love, in order to explore human connections. Although much of her work may seem fearlessly feministic, in the sense that it brings explores female condition without reserve or embarrassment, Atwoods poetry probes into a genderless consciousness to explore feelings of human connectionedness and painful separations. The first poem that will be examined in this paper is Variations on the Word Sleep. The narrator of the poem immediately addresses their conscience need to connect with the other person, and they also recognize the hopelessness of this goal: I would like to watch you sleeping, / which may not happen. The opening to the poem, as we see here, could be considered typical of Atwoods writing in the sense that one person longs to bond with another, and recognizes the difficulty. It is this type of vulnerability that we have come to expect in Margaret Atwood's writings, because as with many feminist writings, we are aware of the power struggle between men and women, and even between women. But this poem refrains from identifying sexes; it only discusses a deeply internal need of one person for another, who is on a journey through he dark maze of their consciousness. The first stanza evolves from a simple plea from the genderless speaker to watch their lover sleep, to a deeper, spiritual nee d. Atwood chooses to remain ambiguous in this respect, which helps a wider audience identify with the work. The poem also has merit because within seven short, simplistic lines we glide from a gentle longing to a love complex and intense, with two minds merging together in a dream: I would like to watch you, / sleeping. I would like to sleep/ with you, to enter/ your sleep as its smooth dark wave/ slides over my head. The action of the poem continues to evolve as Atwood carries the reader through what appears to be a lovers dream or fantasy. The narrator at first wishes only to watch their lover sleep, then they desire to enter the same sleep with them, then they envision themselves descending through the layers of consciousness. As the reader follows along with the admiring narrator and his or her companion, they become increasingly aware of the narrators need for transcendence. Atwood uses words that help guide us along the action, such as watch, enter, over, descend, follow, and become. All of these words are effective in making the reader feel as if

b. f. skinner essays

b. f. skinner essays B.F. Skinner born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania March 20, 1904 was a man known as B.F. Skinner. His real name was Burrhus Fredric, but he signed his name as B.F. since he was at the tender age of nine Skinner accomplished many things in his lifetime. He wrote several books, all about psychology Skinner was the first child of William A. and Grace Burrhus Skinner . During high school Skinner was involved in many activities, including writing for the local paper, playing the piano and saxophone, and inventing things. After graduating high school Skinner went to Hamilton College and graduated in 1926 where he majored in English language and literature. There after he went on to Harvard University, where he received a Ph.D. degree in 1931. Skinner stayed there until 1936 doing laboratory experiments . He the joined the University of Minnesota in 1937. It was during this time that Skinner wrote his first book The Behavior of Organisms .The book was quoted to be a fairly comprehensive s tudy of operant conditioning In this book the theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (for example Thorndike and Hull) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinners S-R theory. It could be verbal praise, a good grade, or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theo ...

California Architecture for the Casual Traveler

California Architecture for the Casual Traveler California and the long Pacific coast of the Western United States is a territory of changing landscapes and wild diversity- in both lifestyles and architectural styles. California is a land of fire and rain and of tsunamis and drought.  Although from north to south its climate changes dramatically, California has a constant element that affects all building codes- the San Andreas Fault. In the links and resources on this page, you will find simple adobe homes of early Spanish colonists, glitzy homes of Hollywood movie stars, groundbreaking modernist architecture, playful amusement park buildings, wacky googie structures, historic bridges and stadia, and many other interesting and unusual building types. Visiting the San Francisco Area Marin County Civic Center by Frank Lloyd WrightSan Francisco Museum of Modern Art by Mario BottaUnited States Federal Building by Thom MayneCalifornia Academy of Sciences by Renzo PianoThe Golden Gate Bridge Along the Coast of California Historic Monterey Houses in MontereyBixby Bridge in Big SurSea Ranch Chapel in Gualala, by James HubbellHearst Castle in San Simeon, designed by Julia MorganHigh Style Spanish Revival Architecture in Santa Barbara Visiting the Los Angeles Area Los Angeles is an architectural kaleidoscope. As you explore the warm, southern California city, youll find odd contrasts. No matter. The sun of Southern California has attracted odd bedfellows, both in the movie industry and architectural practices. Here is just a taste of LA architecture: Disney Concert Hall by Frank GehryEmerson College Los Angeles by Thom MayneBinoculars Building in Venice by Frank GehryDiamond Ranch High School in Pomona by Thom MayneLA Museum of Contemporary Art by Arata IsozakiCase Study House #8  by Charles and Ray EamesThe Getty Center by Richard MeierEnnis Brown House by Frank Lloyd WrightHollyhock House by Frank Lloyd WrightThe Schindler Chace House by Rudolf SchindlerGeorge D. Sturges House by Frank Lloyd WrightTheme Building at LAXCentral Public Library by Bertram Grosvenor GoodhueCaltrans District 7 Headquarters by Thom Mayne Visiting the Palm Springs Area Within two hours of Hollywood, Palm Springs became the famous getaway for the movie elite. Frank Sinatra, Bob Hope, and other movie stars built homes here in the 1940s and 1950s, the height of Mid-Century Modernism. Richard Neutra, Albert Frey, and others invented what became known as Desert Modernism. Midcentury Modern Architecture in Palm SpringsAlexander Homes: Houses by the Alexander Construction CompanyThe Elvis Honeymoon HideawayThe Annenberg Residence, Sunnylands by A. Quincy Jones in Rancho Mirage Visiting the San Diego Area Balboa Park, site of the influential Panama-California Exposition of 1915.  San Diego architect Irving Gill carried out the Mission Revival and Pueblo styles decided on by the organizers, but it was New Yorker Bertram G. Goodhue who gave the buildings the Spanish Baroque detailing known as Churrigueresque.  Exposition buildings such as Casa de Balboa and Casa del Prado ignited a Spanish Renaissance throughout the American Southwest. Well-Known Sports Venues in California Rose Bowl Stadium in PasadenaLevis Stadium in Santa ClaraLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum Architects of California Many of todays larger architectural firms have multiple offices, which often include California. For example, Richard Meier Partners Architects LLP has an office in Los Angeles. The following list of architects, however, are often associated with beginning their careers in California. They made their mark and settled in California. Julia MorganPaul WilliamsRichard NeutraDonald WexlerFrank GehryCharles and Ray EamesRudolph SchindlerWallace NeffA. Quincy JonesThom MayneBernard MaybeckIrving GillCharles and Henry GreeneCraig EllwoodJoseph Esherick Learn More with these Books Wallace Neff, Architect of Californias Golden Age by Alson Clark, 2000Toward a Simpler Way of Life: The Arts and Crafts Architects of California by Robert Winter, University of California Press, 1997Irving J. Gill: Architect, 1870 - 1936 by Marvin Rand, 2006Five California Architects by Esther McCoy and Randell Makinson, 1975On the Edge of the World: Four Architects in San Francisco at the Turn of the Century by Richard Longstreth, University of California Press, 1998California Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright by David Gebhard, 1997California Modern: The Architecture of Craig Ellwood by Neil Jackson, Princeton Architectural Press, 2002Spanish Colonial Style: Santa Barbara and the Architecture of James Osborne Craig and Mary McLaughlin Craig by Pamela Skewes-Cox and Robert Sweeney, 2015

Philosophy 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Philosophy 3 - Essay Example As a function of approaching the issue from such a perspective, this student hopes to expound upon the overall suitability of Kantian morality and provide a well balanced approach to determining the inherent strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that should an approach would necessarily espouse. In the Kantian approach to ethics and morality, the ultimate identifier of a â€Å"good action† is one that is performed out of duty; with no other ulterior motive being present as a means of rewarding or punishing the individual performing the action. Although Kant was not the first individual to support such an approach to morality and ethics, he was the first that has been known to record such an approach and pass it along as a moral code of ethics that, as he argues, should be applied universally. This universality of Kantian morality is one of the hallmarks of such an approach that ultimately makes it unique among the other forms of ethical and moral approaches that have thus far been studied. This universality is born out of an understanding that the main guiding precept that defines goodness is duty. Therefore, the duty, as Kant describes it is not necessarily born out of an imprint of Godliness upon he hearts of mankind; rather, it is born out of the universality of reason in helping to develop moral and ethical approaches to the many situations that greet the individual within his/her daily life (Lachapelle 2005, p. 608). It should of course be noted that Kant never sought to distance God and/or his influence upon morality from his approach. Instead, Kantian morality and ethics take the approach that God is exhibited through reason and rationality and therefore is present within the duties that ultimately lead an individual to perform a moral act for the sake of duty itself. As a means to further this moral approach, Kant argues that the â€Å"good of humanity† in and of itself is sufficient enough a cause for

Supply and Demand of Gasoline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Supply and Demand of Gasoline - Essay Example The gasoline price has ostensibly undergone extensive fluctuations mainly because of the product nature and the industry which supplies the world with oil. Note that a bulk of the aggregate oil output is produced by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This influential group is organized as a cartel and composed of nations in the Middle East including United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait among others. The main produce of these countries is oil and other petroleum products. Other countries, including the United States, are largely dependent on these countries for their oil supply (Case & Fair, 2002). With their rich oil resources, these nations created the cartel which has the ability to control member countries’ oil production capacity and output quotas of enabled them to collude to raise the oil price by. Given its mandate, supply of oil including gasoline is significantly affected by political unrest arising between these oil-exporting countries and other countries as well. To illustrate this point, supply of petroleum products was adversely affected by the war between Iran and Iraq in 1979. This tumultuous battle between two of the largest oil producers had caused a global oil supply shock and resulted in a dramatic increase in the price of oil. The limited oil supply then was further aggravated by the restricted means of transporting oil products to the rest of the world.

The Use of Force Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Use of Force - Essay Example The story was simple and straightforward in narrative discourse which proffered the scenario between a doctor, the narrator, and a child, Mathilda Olson, who was being diagnosed for possible affliction of diphtheria. The setting was in the Olson’s house, where the doctor was initially ushered by the mother who eventually led him to the kitchen, where the father was holding the child and was apparently sitting on the father’s lap. The two items being compared in the essay is the doctor (the narrator or the healer) and the child (the person being healed). The current essay aims to provide a comparative analysis using relevant literary elements from the characters, theme, perspectives and points of views evaluated from the short story. The first point of comparison is the physical traits or characteristics of the items being compared. There is initially disparity in gender: the doctor was described as male and the child was female. Although no name was provided for the doc tor, the statements that gave way to his gender was the mother’s statements as she was talking to the child: â€Å"Such a nice man, put in the mother. Look how kind he is to you. Come on, do what he tells you to. He won't hurt you† (Williams, 2012, par. 15). The child’s gender was clearly identified by the doctor in the fourth paragraph when he vividly described her physical traits and characteristics; using adjectives such as: â€Å"her cold, steady eyes, and no expression to her face whatever. She did not move and seemed, inwardly, quiet; an unusually attractive little thing, and as strong as a heifer in appearance. But her face was flushed, she was breathing rapidly, and I realized that she had a high fever. She had magnificent blonde hair† (Williams, 2012, par. 4). Aside from gender as a point of comparison, the stature of the two is also anti-thetical. The doctor, by virtue of his profession, exudes professionalism and expertise on the most appropria te course of action for the situation. This is the reason why he was called by the Olsons in the first place. On the other hand, the child was

Economic Performance of Kolhapur Division of MSRTC

Economic Performance of Kolhapur Division of MSRTC Introduction An attempt is made in this Chapter to analyses the economic performance of MSRTC in Kolhapur division based on selected indicators. The entire division is divided into twelve depots, viz. Kolhapur, Sambhaji Nagar, Gadhinglaj, Ichalkaranji, Gadhingla, Ichalkaranji, Gargoti, Malkapur, Chandgad, Kurundwad, Kagal, Radhanagri, Gaganbawada and Ajra. The activities of the MSRTC are governed by the corporate objectives set by the RTC Act. 1950. The main objective as indicate earlier are to provide efficient, adequate, economical and co-ordinated transport services to the laymen. However, it is to organise itself on business terms, while achieving the aforesaid objective. Financial Indicators Cost per Kilometre (CPKM) For any Road Transport Corporation the main and utmost important financial performance indicator is cost per Kilometre, because it together with CPKM decides the fare. The profitability of an organisation is a function of both costs and prices, which are equally valid in the case of the passenger road transport industry too. An organisation may incur loss either because the costs go up, the price remaining the same or costs remaining the same the price/fare may fall. The second phenomenon of fare coming down does not ordinarily arise in the case of passenger road transport industry for reasons of relative inelasticity of demand for the service monopoly rights conferred on the services and state regulation of fares. The cost of operations in absolute terms does not by itself indicate measure of costs. Costs have to be worked out to compare the cost of providing the service with the rate of earnings. Cost per kilometre is one of such relative measure which is computed by selecting effective kilometre as a unit of measurement. The cost per kilometre (CPKM) is computed by dividing the total cost of operations by the total effective kilometres. The CPKM is expressed in terms of Rupees. The CPKM can be worked out either in respect of the total cost of operations or in respect of each component of the cost separately. CPKM is calculated by the following formula – The direct or operational or variable costs react proportionately with the change in volume of operations and the cost per unit, i.e., CPKM is constant with volume of operation. As indirect or fixed costs of not change with volume of operations the cost per unit, i.e., CPKM declines as volume rises or increases as volume falls. In the Road Transport industry two different types of costs are considered: Fixed Costs The industry incurs fixed costs relating to part of crew wages, general administration, interest and debt charges welfare expenses and part of workshop mechanical wage. This cost per Kilometre varies inversely with the kilometre range achieved but is constant in total rupee amount. Variable Costs Variable costs are uniform per kilometre but fluctuate depending on the volume of activity in Kilometre. Under this head depreciation, HSD Oil, Tyres, Tubes and spare parts and included.   Earnings per Kilometre (Epkm) The earning per kilometre (EPKM) is computed by dividing the total earning of operations by the total effective kilometres. Revenue in absolute terms without reference to Kilometre will not correctly reflect the ‘Profitability’ of the operation. An Earning per Kilometre (EPKM) is one of the useful ratios to indicate the earning potential of a route/depot/division organisation. The EPKM is related to the carrying capacity of the buses, fare structure and the earning potential of route. The EPKM is calculated by dividing total earnings by total effective Kilometres. EPKM is calculated by the following formula – The EPKM is expressed in terms of Rupees. The EPKM may be in relation to either traffic or gross revenue.   Margin The margin is computed by subtracting the total cost from total earning. Positive margin values indicate the profit, while negative margin values indicate loss or deficit. Margin = Total Earnings – Total Cost Depot-wise Economic Performance of Kolhapur Division   Economic Performance of Kolhapur Depot Economic performance of Kolhapur depot is explained in the following table: Table 4.1 Economic Performance of Kolhapur Depot (In Rs.) Year Variable Cost Fixed Cost Total Cost (CPKM) Total revenue (EPKM) Margin 2001 9.09 8.05 17.13 13.67 -3.46 2002 9.14 8.20 17.34 14.47 -2.87 2003 9.91 8.38 18.29 14.47 -3.82 2004 10.57 7.90 18.47 14.48 -3.99 2005 11.50 8.38 19.88 15.29 -4.59 2006 12.79 8.64 21.43 17.75 -3.68 2007 13.51 8.62 22.13 18.92 -3.21 2008 13.69 8.97 22.66 19.45 -3.21 2009 15.13 9.43 24.56 20.99 -3.57 2010 15.06 10.09 25.15 21.03 -4.12 2011 17.26 10.86 28.12 23.70 -4.42 2012 18.95 11.70 30.65 26.19 -4.46 2013 20.86 12.26 33.12 28.49 -4.63 Mean 13.65 9.34 22.99 19.15 -3.85 SGR 129.48 52.30 93.35 108.41 Source : Official Records of Kolhapur Division of MSRTC Above table No 4.1 shows that, cost and earning of Kolhapur depot as per kilometre. Variable cost of Kolhapur depot is increased from Rs 9.09 to Rs 20.86 per km during the investigation period. Average variable cost is Rs 13.65, while its SGR is 129.48. Variable cost is highly increased because of the prices of diesel, spare parts and lubricant is continuously increased. In the study period, fixed cost of Kolhapur depot is increased from Rs 8.05 to 12.26 per km. Average of fixed cost is 9.34 and its SGR is 52.30. Total cost of Kolhapur depot during investigation period, is increased from Rs 17.13 in 2001 to Rs 33.12 per Km in 2013, average total cost is 22.99 and its SGR is 93.35. Total revenue of this depot from year 2001 to 2013 is increased from Rs 13.67 to Rs 28.49 per Km; average total revenue of last thirteen years is Rs 19.15. Its SGR is remained 108.41. Due to the low load factor of the buses, total revenue growth remains low as compare to the total cost of the depot. Margin shows always negative trends during the study period, it means the Kolhapur depot experienced always loss during study period. In the year 2002, loss of Kolhapur depot is minimum i.e. Rs 2.87 while it maximize in 2013 (i.e. Rs. 4.63). Average margin of Kolhapur depot during the study period is Rs -3.85, it means economic performance of Kolhapur depot is insignificant. Above figure No 4.1 reveals the trends in the total cost and revenue, it is found rising in almost same manner. Hence, there is not so much variation in margin, it always perform negatively. The economic performance of Kolhapur depot is not up to the mark, in the study period variable cost, fixed cost and total cost of continuously increased, comparatively rate of variable cost is highly increased i.e. SGR 129.48 and fixed cost SGR is 52.30 and total cost SGR is 93.35. The average of variable cost, fixed cost and total cost (CPKM) is Rs 13.65, Rs 9.34 and Rs 22.99 respectively. In the same duration SGR of EPKM is 108.41 and its average is 19.15. Average margin of CPKM and EPKM is Rs. -3.85. It is clear that in the study period, Kolhapur depot experienced loss in the investigation period.   Economic Performance of Sambhaji Nagar Depot Economic performance of Sambhaji Nagar depot is explained in the following table: Table 4.2 Economic Performance of Sambhaji Nagar Depot (In Rs.) Year Variable Cost Fixed Cost Total Cost (CPKM) Total revenue (EPKM) Margin 2001 9.50 7.54 17.04 13.53 -3.51 2002 9.61 7.57 17.19 13.99 -3.2 2003 10.29 7.70 17.99 14.41 -3.58 2004 10.75 7.66 18.41 14.18 -4.23 2005 11.70 8.13 19.83 14.71 -5.12 2006 13.10 8.22 21.32 17.36 -3.96 2007 13.89 8.41 22.30 18.26 -4.04 2008 13.80 9.07 22.88 18.58 -4.3 2009 14.86 9.74 24.60 20.06 -4.54 2010 14.84 9.93 24.77 20.47 -4.3 2011 16.66 10.84 27.50 23.91 -3.59 2012 17.73 11.89 29.62 23.82 -5.8 2013 19.36 12.34 31.70 24.95 -6.75 Mean 13.55 9.16 22.70 18.33 -4.38 SGR 103.79 63.66 86.03 84.41 Source : Official Records of Kolhapur Division of MSRTC Above table No 4.2 depicts cost and receipts as per kilometre of Sambhaji Nagar depot during last 13 years. Its variable cost increased from Rs 9.50 to Rs 19.36 with Growth Rate of 103.79. Fixed cost also increased from

Understanding the Factors Affecting the Unemployment Rate

Understanding the Factors Affecting The Unemployment Rate Through Regression Analysis An Individual Report Presented to The Faculty of Economics Department In Partial Fulfillment To The Requirements for ECONMET C31 Submitted to: Dr. Cesar Rufino Submitted by: Aaron John Dee 10933557 April 8, 2011 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study B. Statement of the Problem C. Objective II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RELATED LITERATURE A. GDP B. Average Years in School C. Population D. Literacy Rate III. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK A. Model Specification B. List and Description of Variables C.A-priori Expectations IV. METHODOLOGY V. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS A. Regression of the Original Model 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 9 9 9 10 12 13 13 2 B. Summary Statistics C. Testing for Misspecification in the Model D. Testing for Multicollinearity E. Testing for Heteroscedasticity VI. CONCLUSION VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 15 16 17 18 21 22 3 I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study When we we re still kids, we dream of what we want to be in the future. Older people will usually ask us if what we want to be in the future. Most of us will say, they want to be a doctor, lawyer or engineer to name some.We think and think about our career, but once we are already in the college level, we now dream to become successful in life and have a stable job. But with the rate of unemployment here in country continue to increase, there are no guarantee that once we graduated we will have a job immediately. Unfortunately, many still fail to have stable jobs. Some even can’t find a job even though they graduated from top schools. Then we found ourselves ending in the pool of unemployment. Unemployment is indeed a very important issue all over the world. People are getting laid off, some cannot find a job, and the number is increasing.Government wants to achieve full employment but we all know that it will never happen simply because there are millions of people in country and the g overnment or even the private sectors can provide for that huge number of laborers. The government cannot just expand and increase total output so that it will provide job opportunities to the unemployed because there also negative impact on the economy. I am aware that our country is suffering from high unemployment rate, because some workers are only on a contractual basis. Sure they can work but usually it is only for 6 months plus there are no benefits included.After the span of 6 months, they will find themselves unemployed again and they will have a difficult time especially if they did not finish schooling. Companies now a day are more sophisticated and competitive, they don’t just hire college 4 graduate students even if you graduated from top schools. Having a master’s degree will surely be of help in finding a job for companies look only for the best. Some people engage in work that they are not inclined with like for past year, people work as call center age nts even though their college degree is not mass communications or anything that has a connection of being a call center agent.They do this because they don’t want to be unemployed and do nothing for an extended period of time. B. Statement of the Problem Unemployment is very important issue, not just here in our country but also for the rest of the world. This paper will seek to answer whether the literacy rate, average years in school, GDP and total population have a relationship with the total unemployment. Can these exogenous variables explain the unemployment that is happening all over the world? C. Objective The objective of this paper is to (1) find out what are the determinants of unemployment.For this study, literacy rate, average years in school, GDP and total population will be considered as a determinant of unemployment. (2) Create an econometric model that will explain unemployment and (3) to give the readers idea what should be done to alleviate unemployment 5 I I. REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE A. GDP Gross domestic product or GDP is considered as an indicator of the standard of living in a certain country. The higher the GDP the higher is the country’s standards of living and the lower the GDP the lower is the country’s standard of living.According to (Abuqamar, Coomans, & Louckx, 2011), unemployment is an important factor in measuring country’s economic strength like GDP per capita. If the unemployment level is high, then economic growth is very low because they have a negative relationship. A sustainable growth accompanied by macroeconomic policies that promotes employment will eventually cut down the level of unemployment in the economy and growth is considered as a solution to decrease unemployment (Hussain, Siddiqi, & Iqbal, 2010). This is true because when government wants to increase output by building infrastructures and the like.They create job opportunities for those who are unemployed thus, alleviating unempl oyment in the economy. More people will get jobs and earn to sustain their standard of living or even increase their standard of living depending on their salaries. B. Average Years in School Education is very important in everyone’s lives. It is our foundation of knowledge which will reflect us. Even though going to school and doing homework are boring, we will still benefit from it because we learn and by learning we become mature and responsible.According to (Weisberg & Meltz), the higher the level of education or the years in school of a person, the 6 lower will be the unemployment rate. Which make sense since people are educated, they will have decent jobs and they can even create their own firm or business thus promoting employment. C. Population Population in a country is always increasing and that is inevitable. Population is also a determinant of unemployment. Based on the research paper of (Rafiq, Iftikhar, Asmat, & Zahoor) entitled Determinants of Unemployment: A C ase Study of Pakistan Economy (19982008), population growth has a negative effect on unemployment.The results of their tests show that when the population is increasing, unemployment also increases which is bad for every economy. Rapid growth in population is bad because it will only increase unemployment further. There will be pressure in employment since many people don’t have any job, unemployment will increase. Moen (1999) argues that in the competition for jobs, workers will prefer to have higher degree attainment so that they will have an edge over the other workers. With the preference of increasing a person’s educational attainment, the rate of unemployment will decrease. Nickell, 1979; Moen, 1999). D. Literacy Rate Literacy is important just like education. People must be literate in order to fit in the norm. According to the article Literacy and Unemployment, people who are illiterate have disadvantages because they cannot read and right, thus they will be mo re likely to be 7 unemployed. It is also stated in the article that once people get part of the unemployment cycle, it will be difficult for them to break it and because of long term of being unemployed they will feel discourage and therefore will lack self confidence. 8 III. OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORKA. Model Specification totunem = ? 1 + ? 2litrate + ? 3yearisnch + ? 4gdp + ? 5totpop + ? B. List and Description of Variables Before we proceed to the a-priori expectations of each exogenous variable to the endogenous variable and the discussion of the results, we must describe first the components of the model. The model is comprised of both the exogenous variables and the endogenous variable. The exogenous variables or the independent variables are not affected or determined by any other variables in the model unlike the endogenous variable which depends on the exogenous variable.Table 1 will tells us a brief description of the variables used in the model Table 1. Names of Variables Used and Descriptions Description This quantitative variable pertains to the total unemployment rate of all the countries in the world for the year 2000. lirate This quantitative variable pertains to the literacy rate of all the countries in the world for the year 2000. yearinsch This quantitative variable pertains to the average year in school of an adult ages 15 and up of all the countries in the world for the year 2000. dp This quantitative variable pertains to the gross domestic product of all the countries in the world for the year 2000. Variables totunem 9 totpop This quantitative variable pertains to the total population of all the countries in the world for the year 2000. C. A-priori Expectations The a-priori expectations capture the effect of an increase in the exogenous variables to the endogenous variable which in out model is totunem. The a-priori expectation are taken from the review on related literature a while ago.Note however that the a-priori expectation does not cover the magnitude of their relationship. It only tells the direction of their relationship. A positive sign implies that the exogenous variable has a positive relationship with the endogenous variable and a negative sign implies otherwise. The magnitude of their relationship will be discussed later on. Table 2 shows the relationship if the variables, their signs and the intuition behind it. Table 2. Variables, Sign and Intuition Exogenous Variable: totunem Signs Intuition + Literacy is very important to everyone because it is a social norm.Therefore it has a positive effect on unemployment because when literacy increases, it implies that people learned and attended school. Companies will hire them so there will be a decrease in the unemployment rate. Variables lirate 10 yearinsch +/- An increase in yearinsch doesn’t necessarily mean that you finished every level successfully. It can also mean that your year in school increases because you always fail in school. If the increase i n average years in school is positive, people will be able to work or create businesses that give job opportunities to the unemployed.But if the increase in average years in school is negative, it implies that people didn’t learn and therefore they will have a hard time looking for a job because companies will only accept people who performed well in school gdp + An increase on GDP will promote employment because when the government expands by building infrastructures, it gives job opportunities to those unemployed thus alleviating the unemployment. totpop – An increase in total population will have negative effect on unemployment.It means that when the total population increase, more people will now demand for a job creating a pressure towards the unemployment and if the government cannot supply the increasing population with jobs, they will severely increase the unemployment rate. 11 IV. METHODOLOGY A cross sectional data comprising of 65 countries all over the world for the year 2000 was used in the study. All of the data sets were obtained from the World Bank data sets. The researcher will use the software program Gretl to estimate the model. With this software, the coefficients of the exogenous variables will be obtained.A lin-lin type of model is used in this study and the Ordinary Least Squares approach will be used. After regressing the data, several outputs will be obtained like the coefficients, standard error, p-value and Rsquared to mention some. The model will now be subjected to various tests to check for any CLRM violations namely multicollinearity and heteroscedasticity. Autocorrelation is not present in this model since we are using a cross sectional data. To test for multicollierity, the auxiliary regression and the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) will be used.To check for the presence of heteroscedasticity, both the Breusch – Pagan Test and the White’s Test will be used. After the tests, if there are presence of m ulticollinearity and heteroscedasticty, corrective measures should be applied in order to correct the model. The Ramsey’s RESET is a test for misspecification errors in the model. The interpretation of the results will be also showed after every test on the model. 12 V. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS A. Regression of the Original Model The regression results shown below are obtained by using the Ordinary Least Squares method also known as the OLS method.Model 1: OLS, using observations 1-65 (n = 11) Missing or incomplete observations dropped: 54 Dependent variable: totunem coefficient std. error t-ratio p-value ———————————————————–const 14. 6143 6. 02794 2. 424 0. 0516 litrate -0. 344479 0. 129558 -2. 659 0. 0376 yearinsch 3. 48303 1. 04882 3. 321 0. 0160 gpd -1. 34898e-011 5. 94827e-012 -2. 268 0. 0639 totpop 1. 08535e-08 5. 83976 e-09 1. 859 0. 1124 Mean dependent var Sum squared resid R-squared F(4, 6) Log-likelihood Schwarz criterion 6. 200000 40. 74309 0. 740853 4. 288221 -22. 80997 57. 60942 S. D. ependent var S. E. of regression Adjusted R-squared P-value(F) Akaike criterion Hannan-Quinn * ** ** * 3. 965098 2. 605862 0. 568088 0. 056084 55. 61995 54. 36586 Excluding the constant, p-value was highest for variable 5 (totpop) The results from the initial regression are shown above. We need to look at several values in interpreting the results for our model. We need to look first the coefficients and the pvalue but what do these things tells us about our model. Since our model is linear, the coefficient basically tells us the effect of a unit increase in the exogenous variables to the 3 endogenous variables. It is interpreted like this, a unit increase in an independent variable will increase or decrease the dependent variable by the coefficient value. The p-value shows us the individual significance of the exogenous variables. For the exogenous variables considered to be significant, the p-value should be less than or equal to the risk level of 0. 05 at a 95% confidence interval. The next thing that we need to look at is the R-squared or the goodness-offit. It tells us how many percent of the endogenous variable are explained by the exogenous variables.The value of r-squared should be multiplied by 100% to be in percentage form. Interpreting the above model, it shows that a unit increase in litrate and yearinsch, totunem will decrease by 0. 344479 and increase by 3. 48303 repectively. These two variables are seen to be significant to our model with a p-value of 0. 0376 and 0. 0160 respectively. The other two variables which are gdp and totpop are seen to be insignificant in our model with a p-value of 0. 0639 and 0. 1124 respectively. With a unit increase in gdp and totpop, totunem will decrease by -1. 4898e-011 and increase by 1. 08535e-08 respectively. We now look on the Rsqaured o f the model, as shown in the results above the R-sqaured has a value of 0. 740853 or 74. 08%. This implies that 74. 08% of the endogenous variables are explained by the exogenous variables. Note that these results and interpretation are only reliable if our model is free from any violation. These violations will be discussed later on and we will apply the corrective measure if necessary. 14 B. Summary Statistics Summary statistics, using the observations 1 – 65 (missing values were skipped) itrate yearinsch gpd totpop Mean 74. 787 6. 9008 3. 3822e+011 4. 5753e+007 Std. Dev. 20. 570 2. 8389 1. 2582e+012 1. 5949e+008 Median 79. 555 6. 8000 3. 7718e+010 1. 0467e+007 C. V. 0. 27505 0. 41138 3. 7202 3. 4859 Minimum 25. 654 0. 83900 2. 1546e+008 7. 8661e+005 Skewness -0. 66121 -0. 080552 6. 9480 7. 0442 Maximum 99. 767 12. 049 9. 8988e+012 1. 2626e+009 Ex. kurtosis -0. 67087 -0. 86711 49. 954 50. 864 litrate yearinsch gpd totpop The summary statistics shows us the details of our mo del. The mean, variance, skewness, and the kurtosis are the four moments of random variables.Discussing further, the mean measures the central tendency, it is basically the sum of all the values of the observation with respect to the total number of observation or the average. The variance measures how spread out or dispersed the variables are from the mean. If the values of the variance are far from the mean, then it implies that observation are scattered around the mean. The values of the variance should be small so that the observations are near to the mean. A dataset is negatively skewed if the value of the mean of the model is less than the median. This focuses more on the higher values than the lower ones.The positively skewed on the other hand tells us the other way around. 15 C. Testing for Misspecification in the Model RESET test for specification (squares and cubes) Test statistic: F = 0. 727289, with p-value = P(F(2,4) > 0. 727289) = 0. 538 RESET test for specification (c ubes only) Test statistic: F = 0. 874685, with p-value = P(F(1,5) > 0. 874685) = 0. 393 RESET test for specification (squares only) Test statistic: F = 0. 664374, with p-value = P(F(1,5) > 0. 664374) = 0. 452 Misspecification occurs when there are important variables omitted. If the model is not correctly specified, the estimators will be biased and inconsistent.Also, the error term is not estimated correctly. Because of the misspecification errors, the statistical significance of the variables will give us misleading conclusions. To be sure that our model is correctly specified, we run the Ramsey’s RESET test. The results above are from the Ramsey’s RESET test, this is the general test to check for misspecification of error in out model. There will be a null hypothesis that will be tested here which is Ho: there is no misspecification and the alternative hypothesis will be Ha: there is misspecification. To interpret the results above, we need to look at the p-values o f the three results.You will notice that all of the p-values are greater than the significance level of 0. 05, therefore there is no evidence that we need to accept the alternative hypothesis and we have no reason to reject the null hypothesis which tells us that there exist no misspecification of error. We can say confidently that the model is not misspecified. 16 D. Testing for Multicollinearity Multicollinearity exists when the independent variables are related to one another (Gujarati and Porter, 2009). It means that there is a linear relationship among the independent variables.This is one of the classical linear regression violations and this is usually present in multiple regressions. Gujarati and Porter (2009) also pointed out that even though there is a presence of multicollinearity, the estimates are still BLUE. With the presence of multicollinearity, the standard error of the variables become larger than what their values should really be. Therefore the estimation will be difficult to determine whether it is precise or not. To know if the model exhibits multicollinearity, the model should be tested it and the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) must be examined.If the VIF of the independent variables exceed 10, then multicollinearity exists between the exogenous variables and corrective measures are taken in order to eliminate the multicollinearity between the variables. Variance Inflation Factors Minimum possible value = 1. 0 Values > 10. 0 may indicate a collinearity problem litrate yearinsch gpd totpop 5. 011 4. 724 4. 890 4. 480 VIF(j) = 1/(1 – R(j)^2), where R(j) is the multiple correlation coefficient between variable j and the other independent variables Properties of matrix X'X: 1-norm = 1. 8146616e+024 Determinant = 3. 3597218e+046 Reciprocal condition number = 9. 335124e-026 17To interpret the results above, we need look at the individual VIF of the exogenous variable whether multicollinearity exists or not. If the VIFs of the exogenous variables are less than 10, it implies that multicollinearity is tolerable and there are no corrective measures to be applied. But if the value of the VIF are greater than 10, then severe multicollinearity exists and the necessary correction should be done. As seen in the results above, the VIFs of the exogenous variables are less than 10 which implies that the CLRM assumption of multicollinearity is tolerable in the model thus, it does not require any corrective actions.E. Testing for Heteroscedasticity Heteroscedasticity is also a classical linear regression model (CLRM) violation that is usually present in panel data and cross sectional data sets. This problem violates the assumption that the model exhibits constant variance as the sample size increases. Therefore, if anyone still continues with the normal testing procedures even though heteroscedasticity is present, whatever the conclusion one draw from the results may be misleading (Gujarati and Porter, 2009). In order to know whether our model exhibits heteroscedasticity, we need to perform the Breusch-Pagan Test or the White’s Test.Let us look first at the result for the Breusch-Pagan Test for heteroscedasticity. Breusch-Pagan test for heteroskedasticity OLS, using observations 1-65 (n = 11) Missing or incomplete observations dropped: 54 Dependent variable: scaled uhat^2 coefficient std. error t-ratio p-value ————————————————————const 0. 353903 2. 83863 0. 1247 0. 9049 litrate 0. 0400827 0. 0610102 0. 6570 0. 5356 yearinsch -0. 394681 0. 493903 -0. 7991 0. 4547 18 gpd totpop -1. 46506e-012 2. 07008e-010 2. 80111e-012 2. 75001e-09 -0. 5230 0. 07528 0. 6197 0. 9424Explained sum of squares = 2. 80998 Test statistic: LM = 1. 404991, with p-value = P(Chi-square(4) ; 1. 404991) = 0. 843327 Ho: Constant Variance vs Ha: Heteroscedasticity exists As we can see from t he results above, the p-value is 0. 843327 which is greater than the 0. 05. Thus, the null hypothesis which tells us that our model exhibits a constant variance must be accepted and the alternative hypothesis to be rejected. Let us also use the White’s test for heteroscedsaticity to check whether the results from the Breusch-Pagan test performed above is the same with here.White's test for heteroskedasticity OLS, using observations 1-65 (n = 11) Missing or incomplete observations dropped: 54 Dependent variable: uhat^2 coefficient std. error t-ratio p-value —————————————————————const -111. 711 169. 951 -0. 6573 0. 5785 litrate 3. 22957 5. 32033 0. 6070 0. 6056 yearinsch 0. 271900 18. 2904 0. 01487 0. 9895 gpd 2. 20028e-011 9. 24076e-011 0. 2381 0. 8340 totpop -7. 59484e-09 1. 24364e-07 -0. 06107 0. 9569 sq_litrate -0. 0208996 0. 033 1887 -0. 6297 0. 5932 sq_yearinsch -0. 142336 1. 28197 -0. 1110 0. 9217 sq_gpd 0. 000000 0. 000000 -0. 437 0. 7639 sq_totpop 0. 000000 0. 000000 0. 2166 0. 8486 Unadjusted R-squared = 0. 470293 Test statistic: TR^2 = 5. 173227, with p-value = P(Chi-square(8) > 5. 173227) = 0. 738911 Ho: Constant Variance vs Ha: Heteroscedasticity exists 19 The results from the White’s test give us the same intuition as the Breusch-Pagan Test. The p-value here is 0. 738911 which is greater than 0. 05. Based on the results, we should accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis. Since both of the test’s that was performed have a p-value greater than 0. 05 which implieas that they are insignificant.We should accept the null hypothesis which is the model exhibits a constant variance and reject the alternative hypothesis. There is no heteroscedasticity in the model. 20 VI. CONCLUSION Based on the results in the regression, we can conclude that all of the exogenous variab les except for yearinsch match our a-priori expectations. The results after regressing the model shows that litrate, gdp are significant thus we can say that they are indeed factors in determining unemployment. The variable totpop is insignificant because when population increase, it doesn’t mean that there will people already available to work immediately.But the review on related literatures proved that when population increases the unemployment rate will also increase eventually. As for the variable yearinsch, this is most significant variable among the four exogenous variables. The effect of this variable captures the negative effect. As said in the a-priori expectations, years in schooling may continue to increase because of poor performance in school, thus the students will repeat again and again and again, Yes it increases the years of schooling but it implies a negative effect.People will end up unemployed since they are not doing well in school. The government plays an important role in maintaining a low level of unemployment. They will not be able to achieve its goal of having full employment but the government can provide job opportunities to alleviate unemployment. The people should also do their part in order for them not to be part of the unemployed by simply performing well in school and aim for higher level of education. 21 VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abuqamar, M. , Coomans, D. , & Louckx, F. (2011, January).Correlation between socioeconomic differences and infant mortality in the Arab World (1990-2009). International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 3(1) , 15-21. Gujarati, & Porter. (2009). Basic Econometrics. USA: John Weily and Sons. Hussain, T. , Siddiqi, M. , & Iqbal, A. (2010). A Coherent Relationship between Economic Growth and Unemployment: An Empirical Evidence from Pakistan. International Journal of Human and Social Sciences , 332-339. Literacy Fact Sheet. (n. d. ). Retrieved from Northwest Territories Literacy Council: http://w ww. nwt. literacy. a/litfacts/LiteracyandUnemployment. pdf Rafiq, M. , Iftikhar, A. , Asmat, U. , & Zahoor, K. (n. d. ). DETERMINANTS OF UNEMPLOYMENT:A CASE STUDY OF PAKISTAN ECONOMY (1998-2008). Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 3. No. 1 , 17-24. The effects of education on the natural rate of unemployment. (2008, 4 1). Retrieved 4 7, 2011, from Goliath: Business knowledge on demand: http://goliath. ecnext. com/coms2/gi_0199-8128098/The-effects-of-education-on. html Weisberg, Y. , & Meltz, N. M. (n. d. ). Education and Unemployment in israel, 1976-1994: Reducing the Anomaly. 22

What is the impact of road safety on the design and management of road networks?

Abstract Road transport is the most common type of transportation worldwide, which inevitably means that traffic accidents, and resulting casualties, are a regular occurrence. Further, the manufacture of cars in recent years, which combine high-speed engines with poor road performance, has a direct correlation with the occurrence of accidents. Consequentially, road safety has become a common interest within all countries throughout the world. In my opinion, road safety can be improved by incorporating relevant geometric, climatic and physical considerations in the design of roads. In addition, the application of an awareness program in education and advertising plays a significant role in strengthening road safety and reducing accidents. On the basis of the foregoing, when one is building a safe road, every factor of safety should be taken into consideration and at every stage of the process, including design. The main objective of this report is to show the impact of road safety considerations in the design of roads and the management of the road network, and how the aim of decreasing road traffic accidents and casualties influences geometric design, traffic design and structural design in road construction. In particular, geometric design and traffic design are greatly influenced by road safety standards, as evidenced in the geometric design of roundabouts, junctions, and pedestrian and cyclist highways. By relying on a specific case study, this paper will also investigate roundabout design and its interrelation with road safety; for instance, whilst roundabouts are likely safer than intersections because they encourage a reduction in vehicles speed and conflict points, it has been found that roundabouts with signalisation are safer for both cyclists and pedestrians. For these reasons, it is clear that the improvement of road safety requires the inclusion of safety in road design and man agement procedures. Introduction The road network is a systematic structure, which is constructed on invariable criteria for the purpose of road transportation and designed with certain considerations (such as traffic, climate condition and the environment) in mind. It is used by the majority of people worldwide, which is unsurprising considering the volume of traffic accidents and road related deaths and injuries. Indeed in recent times, this is often seen as a global phenomenon, with the number of road related deaths ranging from between 0.75 and 0.8 million annually[1]. Unfortunately, it also appears that this number is increasingly rising; indeed, a 2008 publication of the World Health Organisation (â€Å"World health statistics†) estimated that the death rate from traffic accidents globally is 2.2%, and that due to the manufacture of car engines capable of higher speeds and the development of the economy in developing countries, it is anticipated that this figure will dramatically increase to about 3.6% by 2030[2]. Likewise, road traffic accident costs are expected to increase. There are three main factors which contribute to road traffic accidents: â€Å"road and engineering deficiencies; road user errors (â€Å"human factors†); and vehicle defects†[3]. Indeed, a UK study from the 1970s demonstrated that the human factor plays an unfavorable role in 95% of accidents, whilst 28% and 8% of accidents are at least partly caused by environmental and vehicle shortcomings[4]. For these reasons, it is not logical to focus solely on one single factor. It is clear that the fact that road user errors feature in the majority of accidents proves that the human factor is the principle cause of traffic accidents; however, if the construction of roads was geometrically improved, this may not be the case. Indeed, according to Restructuring road institutions, finance and management engineering[5], engineering is one of four factors that influence road safety (along with enforcement, education, and climate). By focusing on the impact of the engineering factor o n road safety improvement, the objective of this report is: To demonstrate and define the concept of road safety. To explain the incorporation of safety features in road design and management. This report consists of 6 parts: methodology; an explanation of road safety, road design, and road management; the impact of road safety factors on the geometric design and management of roads; a presentation of a case study on road intersections, cyclists and pedestrian safety at roundabouts; a discussion; and finally, a conclusion 2. Methodology To demonstrate the effect of the road safety considerations on road design and management, this paper will investigate road intersections through a case study linked to geometric design, and then discuss the safety of cyclists and pedestrians in relation to roundabouts. See Figure 1. 3. Road safety According to Oxford Wordpower Dictionary[1], safety is defined as â€Å"the state of being safe; not being dangerous or in danger†, whilst road safety is defined as â€Å"the prevention of road accidents†. The purpose of roads is to provide facilities for safe travel and transport, and improved road safety can be achieved in the design and management of road management by incorporating safety orientated â€Å"design criteria, design values and interventions†[2]. Such an approach could not only lead to a decrease in road related deaths and accidents, but it could also make roads more accessible. Indeed, as outlined in the DTMRQ manual[3], such an outcome can be achieved with the application of certain factors: Improving road network safety using a risk management approach; Designing for safer travel for all road users; Providing safer access to the road system for cyclists and pedestrians; Ensuring work site safety; and Co-ordinating with other government agencies in partnership. As stated above, road users errors is the main factor which contributes to road accidents. However, it has been observed that the enhancement of engineering design and management can influence drivers’ behavior positively and reduce the number of such errors[4]. It should be noted that no road is absolutely safe and that the safety of a road is often measured on the volume of accidents on it. For that reason, it is logical to indicate that the construction of a road involves the use of a nominal safety level[5] 4. Road design: According to Oxford Wordpower Dictionary[6], design is defined as â€Å"to plan and make a drawing of how something will be made†. The three aspects of design that must be considered in the construction of roads are geometric design (which relates to physical elements such as â€Å"vertical and horizontal curves, lane widths, clearances, cross-section dimensions, etc†[7]) traffic design and structural design. Good road design standards involve a combination of these three variable aspects to produce efficient and safer road.4.1 Geometric design:Road geometric design involves horizontal and vertical alignment and road cross-section, with the determination of these elements based on the criteria of road safety[8]. The reduction of the road accident rate is significantly influenced by these elements meaning there is a clear relationship between road design and road safety. For example, it has been found that junctions that are geometrically designed with road safety in min d see a smaller number of road accidents. Sound geometric design can involve a reduction in the number of conflict points (with the construction of channels). Indeed, it has been found that the use of roads with two lanes, which are each 3.7m wide, are safer than roads with one lane that is 2.7m wide[9]. In addition, it is felt that the presence of the median reduces the cross-median accident rate, even where it is narrow, and that the inclusion of safety fences at the outer edge of roads plays a significant role in road safety[10]. Road Management: According to Robinson (2008)[11], road management is defined as â€Å"a process that is attempting to optimise the overall performance of the road network overtime†. This involves action that affects or can affect the road network quality and efficiency during the service lifespan and which facilitates trade, health protection, and education by enhancing accessibility. Further, the improvement of road efficiency, effectiveness and safety can lead to increasing economic well-being as a result of lower commodity prices. Road management is affected by a number of factors, but the dominant is â€Å"accident levels and costs†, which is directly related to road users and economic infrastructure[12]. As a consequence, road management action can involve the policing of vehicle speed in order to improve safety. Additionally, it can also include such activities which are conducted on the road itself and the surrounding environment, such as road maintenance. As Robinson (2008) sta tes, the aim of road maintenance is to make roads safer because it contributes to the geometric factors in the areas of: Pavement and footway surface; Carriageway marking and delineation; and Signs, street lights and furniture.[13] In this way, road safety can be incorporated in road management; for example, the continuous repair of pavements reduces vehicle operating costs to be reduced and the rate of accidents on the road. Road intersections Road intersections are a significant part of the road network structure, and in spite of their simple function, they contributes more than 20% of fatal road accidents in the EU[14]; and even though it has been reported that about 31% of serious accidents occur in non-built-up areas, 65% occurred at built-area junctions in 1984 in the UK[15]. According to the Federal Highway Administration (2006)[16], road intersection safety has become a considerable problem in the USA because more than 45% of approximately 2.7 million crashes that occurred there in 2004 happened at junctions. Unfortunately, despite the fact that junction design and traffic standards have seen a significant improvement generally, it has not caused a significant reduction in the rate of accidents per year. For those reasons, the FHWA supported the concept of converting intersections to roundabouts in order to decrease the rate of accidents and to provide increase safety. Rate of fatal casualties in EU at junctions and other locations of roads Case study A study was carried out in 8 States of the USA in 2004 for 24 junctions before and after conversion to roundabout. It resulted in a 39% reduction of overall crash rates, with a 90% and 76% reduction in the fatal and injury crashes, respectively[1]. See Table 1. Reduction of crashes following roundabout conversions at 24 U.S. junctions In 8 states in USAReduction In Crashes % In 2004OverallFatalInjury -39%-90%-76% Table 1: the information from FHWA, 2006 Discussion The reduction in the level of road traffic accidents in the case study proves that replacing junctions with roundabouts is the logical decision in the USA because it is clear that such a course of action increases overall safety. Unfortunately, the study sample is small as it does not cover all safety aspects, and the safety of the cyclist and pedestrian is not clarified because the crashes categorized are only based on motor vehicles. It should be noted that approximately 75% of cyclist accidents occur at roundabouts[2]. For that reason, the impact of roundabouts on passengers and cyclists is worthy of investigation.8.1 Roundabout and road designAccording to Fortuijn (2003)[3], the majority of cyclist-car accidents occur when a cyclist is circulating in the roundabout and a car either enters or exits from the roundabout. It has also been said that roundabouts that are charactarised with a significant design feature (e.g. a requirement to reduce vehicle speed to 30phm, use of a centr al island, a right angle connection between roadways and circular roadways, or a right of way traffic movement) serve to reduce crash rates and cyclist accidents. Another characteristic that improves road safety at roundabouts is the reduction of conflict points to about a quarter of the number utilised at other junctions.8.2. Roundabout and road managementModern roundabouts are recognised with high capacity, low speed, and non-use of signalisation. The use of roundabout signalisation is typical dependant on traffic volume and safety. Nevertheless, the roundabouts that don’t use signalisation are still safer than junctions[1]. Further, the maintenance of traffic signs, lights and pavement surface serve to increase road life service and safety. The manufacture of vehicles with higher speed engines may serve to reduce the efficiency of roundabouts and increase the safety hazards to cyclists and pedestrians, especially at times of high traffic volume. According to the findings of the London Road Safety Unit (2003)[2], the roundabouts with signalisation are safer for both cyclists and pedestrian, based on a study which was conducted in 2003 for a number of roundabouts, before and after signalisation Conclusion: This report has sought to demonstrate the impact of road safety in design and road management by defining and analysing the relevant concepts, with particular attention paid to cyclist and pedestrian safety. The following points were also concluded: Road accidents occur due to three main factors: road users, environment and engineering. The level of road safety measures that are utilized depend on the volume of accidents. Road safety is incorporated into road design and management through incorporation of safety considerations. Road safety is improved through road maintenance. Roundabouts typically serve to reduce vehicle speed and conflict points, which in turn can reduce the road accident rate, and increase the safety of cyclists and pedestrian. It is believed that the road design and management plays a significant role in road safety enhancement through the interaction of safety criteria with the road efficiency. Signalisation at roundabouts can increase the safety of cyclists and pedestrians, and a cyclist right of way can reduce the rate of car-cyclist accident References: Robinson, R., & Thagesen, B. (2004). Road engineering for development, 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis. London. Moller, M., & Hels, T. (2008). Cyclists’ perception of risk in roundabouts.Accident Analysis & Prevention, 40(3), 1055-1062. [online] https://wiki.cecs.pdx.edu/pub/ItsWeb/BikeBoxes/Moller_Hels_2007.pdf [accessed October 19th 2013] Fortuijn, L. G. H. (2003). Pedestrian and Bicycle-Friendly Roundabouts; Dilemma of Comfort and Safety. [online], Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. http://www.mnt.ee/failid/SlowTrRoundb.pdf [accessed October 19th 2013] Antoniou, C., Tsakiri, M., & Yannis, G. (2012). ROAD SAFETY IMPROVEMENTS IN JUNCTIONS USING 3D LASER SCANNING. [online] http://www.nrso.ntua.gr/geyannis/images/stories/ge/Publications/Papers-Conferences/geyannis-pc144.pdf [accessed October 16th 2013] DTMRQ, (2010). Road planning and design manual: design philosophy. [online], Brisbane, Department of Transport and Main Roads of Queensland. http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/~/media/Business%20and%20industry/Technical%20standards%20and%20publications/Road%20planning%20and%20design%20manual/Current%20document/RPDM_Chapter2.pdf[Accessed October 14th 2013]. DTMRQ, (2010). Road planning and design manual: road planning and design fundamentals. [online], Brisbane,Department of Transport and Main Roads of Queensland. http://www.tmr.qld.gov.au/~/media/Business%20and%20industry/Technical%20standards%20and%20publications/Road%20planning%20and%20design%20manual/Current%20document/RPDM_Chapter3.pdf[Accessed October 17th 2013]. FHWA, (2006). Priority market-ready technologies and innovations. Problem: intersection crashes account for more than 45 percent of all crashes nationwide. [online], U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/resourcecenter/teams/safety/saf_7rnd.pdf [accessed 18th October 2013]. Fouladvand, M. E., Sadjadi, Z., & Shaebani, M. R. (2004). Characteristics of vehicular traffic flow at a roundabout. [online] Physical Review E, 70(4), 046132. http://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0309560.pdf [accessed October 14th 2013] Grime, G., 1987.Handbook of road safety research.Bodmin: Butterworths. Hauer, E, (1999). Safety in geometric design standards. [online], Toronto. http://portalantigo.cefid.udesc.br/ciclo/workshop/Hauer.Safety.GeoDesign.pdf [Accessed October 17th 2013]. London Street Management-London Road Safety Unit. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/SignalsatRoundabouts-TransportationProfessiona-Article.pdf Ministry of Transport, (1966). Roads in urban areas. Ministry of transport: Scottish development department. London. Oxford Wordpower Dictionary, (2013). Oxford University press, Persaud, B N and others, (2000). Crash reductions following installation of roundabouts in the United States. [online]. https://www.dot.ny.gov/main/roundabouts/files/insurance_report.pdf [Accessed 21th October 2013]. Robinson, R, 2008. Restructuring road institutions, finance and management, volume 1: concepts and principles.Totton: University of Birmingham, Birmingham. Slinn, M., Matthews, P., & Guest, P. (2005). Traffic engineering design. Principles and practice. 2nd ed. Arnold, London. [online] httpwww.amazon.comTraffic-Engineering-Design-Second-Editiondp0750658657 [accessed 20th October 2013] WHO, (2008).World health statistics. [online], Paris, World Health Organisation. [online]http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/EN_WHS08_Full.pdf [accessed 14th October 2013].