Race and Racial Group Essay Example for Free

Race and Racial Group EssaySearch the Internet for groups and organizations promoting racial equality to help you complete this assignment. You may as well as refer to the Internet Resource Directory in Ch. 13 of Racial and Ethnic Groups. Using the information from the text and your web searchIdentify one racial group from the list below Hispanic American/LatinoWrite a 500- to 750-word paper from one of the perspectives below A historian writing close the racial group in a book chapter A news reporter writing a newspaper article or blog inlet about the racial group An individual ingredient of the racial group, writing a personal letter to a friend who is not a member of that racial group Answer the following questions What have been the experiences of this racial group throughout U. S. history? What have been the political, social, and cultural issues and concerns throughout American history? What command meant to constrain race within prejudicial boundaries was enacted ? How did the various groups you researched fight this legislation? What legislation meant to alleviate prejudicial boundaries has been enacted? How did the various groups you researched promote this legislation?Assignment historical Report on RacePurpose of AssignmentStudents explore a variety of resources on racial equality and write a paper from a historical perspective relating to the experiences of a particular racial group in the United States. By understanding the history of experiences of various groups, students will be correct prepared to connect historical experience to racial diversity today.Resource RequiredInternet Resource Directory in Ch. 13 of Racial and Ethnic Groups.

Child Recognition of Emotions

Child Recognition of EmotionsCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONHuman perceptions f ar as a means of expression, often indicating an individuals internal conscious live on or physiological arousal. Emotions also serve as a form of chat, alert individuals to chief(prenominal) aspects of their environment and their relationships with sepa prise individuals. Emotions influence a persons actions, cognitions, and how they atomic number 18 perceived by some others (Strayer, 2002). For deterrent example, sensations whitethorn influence how individuals respond to an environmental threat, as discoverings of sadness whitethorn indicate a withdrawal of behavior or tactile propertys of fear may engage the activity of flight (Strayer, 2002). The experience of perceptions, in turn, provides individuals with meaning about both(prenominal) their internal and external environments and information about how they should respond to a fond situation.The capacity to develop an adequate intelligence of emotions is kn induce as ablaze competence. to a greater extent precisely, excited competence is defined as a demonstration of self-efficacy in emotion-eliciting social transactions (Saarni, Campos, Camras Witherington, 2006, p. 250). For pincerren, ace way to gauge their excited competence is to visit their ability to perceive their own emotions and the emotions of others (Saarni et al., 2006). This type of assessment allows tecs to meet an approximate measure as to childrens ablaze development level.The first skill of emotional competence is for children to develop an understanding of self. Through an ability to be aware of their own personal emotional experience, children begin to develop self-conscious emotions. Feelings of shame, guilt, and embarrassment, for example, allow children to refer to themselves as having conscious sentiency that they are distinct from others (Lewis, 1993, 1995 Mascolo Fischer, 1995). In addition, childrens emotional competence is dev eloped through an ability to be aware of multiple emotions or to feel that their emotions are in conflict with their environment (e.g., ambivalence Stein, Trabasso, Liwag, 2000). As children become aware of their own emotions, emotional development is strengthened and refined.A second valuable skill development to emotional competence is for children to make sense of others inner republics (Saarni et al., 2006). Specifically, children ingest to comprehend and hand over others behaviors and begin to realize that others are capable of forming their own beliefs and emotions (for a review see Dunn, 2000 Halberstadt, Denham, and Duns much, 2001). Understanding the distinction between ones own emotions and the emotions of others is crucial to emotional development in children. For instance, studies indicate that childrens ability to accurately advert emotions in self and in others may work as a gauge to assess social competence (Halberstadt et al., 2001). In these types of studies, childrens social competence is launch by correlating their understanding of emotion terms, facial expressions, and elicitors of emotion terms (e.g., situational descriptions of a ingenious or sad event) with their social competence rating from teachers ratings or by peers sociometric choices (Saarni et al., 2006). Childrens ability to spot discrepancys in emotional features in combination with how others view their ability provides a measure of their social competence. Monitoring childrens social competence allows one to identify socially disadvantaged children and implement effective coping strategies before any harmful, long-term effects manifest (Benford, 1998).Through childrens awareness of their own emotional state, in combination with the skill to discern others emotions, children begin to achieve more effective emotional processing skills. Understanding childrens emotional processing is important because it chance ons legion(predicate) social outcomes, such as children s helping behavior (Chapman, Zahn-Waxler, Cooperman Iannotti, 1987, Miller Jansen op de Haar, 1997), aggressive responses (Harris Siebel, 1975), and self-control (Ceschi Scherer, 2003). Few studies, however, have experienced how emotion concerns childrens abilities to accurately identify the emotional state of others.Consequently, the present study sought to examine the effects of childrens own emotional states on their social/cognitive abilities to discern emotional states in others. More specifically, this research sought to understand how corroboratory, disconfirming, and neutral emotional states of children mended performance on emotion mention tasks that utilized incompatible levels of cognitive analyzableity. By utilizing two types of emotion knowledge tasks, the research examined the influence of differently valenced emotions on childrens social-cognitive abilities. Results may help to expand existing social information processing precedents by incorporating th e influence cognitive complexity and affect may serve in childrens recognition of others emotions.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEWUnderstanding Others Emotions through Facial ExpressionsThe ability for children to understand what others are experiencing emotionally develops through an interaction between the awareness of their own emotional experience and the ability to empathize and conceptualize the causes of emotions in others (Saarni et al., 2006). In addition, the more children learn about how and why others act the way they do, the more they earth-closet make descendences about the emotional state of others. Children typically rely on facial expressions to infer others emotional state (Ceschi Scherer, 2003 H erstwhile(a) Kirkpatrick, 1991).The face is considered the primary indicator of human emotion (Ekman, 1992). For example, body gestures are easily concealed (e.g., hiding a clinch fist behind ones back) or verbal communication can be eliminated by simply refusing to speak. Facial expressions, however, are more difficult to disguise (Ekman, 1993). Additionally, the miscellany in an individuals face allows for a variety of emotional expressions, each associated with a distinct facial expression (Ekman, 1993). Facial expressions serve a dual part facial emotions can indicate a persons internal emotional state or function as symbols referring to something else, such as a form of communication (e.g., deterring or placating someones actions Lewis Michalson, 1985).Facial expressions are commonly used as a means for gauging emotion states in research. By 2 years, children can distinguish a number of basic emotional states in the facial expressions of adults, but do not always label them accurately (Izard, 1971). At 5 years, children can accurately label 41% of the emotions depicted in a set of adult photographs (Odom Lemond, 1972). Overall, young children can recognize some of the more common emotional expressions as displayed by adults (e.g., MacDonald, Kirkpatrick Sullivan, 1996).By the ages of 11 or 12, most children recognize and verbalize that a persons expression may be both a social and an emotional response (e.g., Underwood Hurley, 1999). Consequently, children realize that a persons facial expression may indicate both the individuals internal state (e.g., I am feeling sad), as well as what the cues represent socially (e.g., I am expressing my feelings of sadness towards others). Each form of emotional expression is essential in align for children to interpret and comprehend anothers emotion (Underwood Hurley, 1999).Developmental Differences in Childrens Understanding of Others wound up ExperiencesAs children mature, they acquire greater abilities to make inferences about what others are feeling (Gross Ballif, 1991). Children, in an attempt to understand the emotions of others, begin to combine facial and situational cues. The ability to combine these cues, however, is strengthened and refined as children age. The eas iest emotions for children to discern are positive ones (Saarni et al., 2006). Children can more readily identify happy reactions in a naturally occurring setting as compared to nix reactions (e.g. Fabes, Eisenberg, Nyman, Michealieu, 1991). ban facial expressions, on the other hand, such as sadness, fear, and anger, are more difficult for children to decode. Negative emotions become easier to interpret, however, when they are paired with an emotion-eliciting situational context (Saarni et al. 2006). In addition, the causes of negative emotion are easier for children to decode than causes of positive emotion, an interpretation that appears lucid with negative emotions eliciting a more intense response (Fabes et al., 1991). For example, children can easily determine the causes for their goal failures because it is an undesired consequence.Developmental differences are apparent when evaluating childrens understanding of the causes of emotions (Fabes et al., 1991). Younger childre n (i.e., 3 year-olds) are more prone to attribute causes of emotion to a persons wants or enquires, whereas older children (i.e., 5 year-olds) make use of others personality traits to determine their future reactions to an emotional event (Fabes et al., 1991). Children aged 5 to 10 years can use a characters past experience to determine the characters reactions to a new-fangled situation (Gnepp Gould, 1985). For example, if a characters beaver friend harasses him, children aged 5 to 10 can infer how that character will later react to seeing the best friend on the playground. The developmental difference is evident in the quality of the response. Younger children are more likely to infer what the character is feeling wholly through the current situational information (e.g., the character would be pleased to see the best friend), whereas older children are more likely to use the prior experience to evaluate how the character will react (e.g., the character will avoid the best fri end on the playground Gnepp Gould, 1985). Further support for this developmental difference is that younger children (i.e., preschoolers) are more likely to infer the emotional state of others when a characters emotional cues are presented explicitly (e.g., pictorial representation of the characters face) as compared to older children (i.e. school-aged) who can adeptly determine the characters response when less(prenominal) explicit cues are utilized (Lagattuta, Wellman, Flavell, 1997).These investigations demonstrate that by school age, children are well equipped to identify emotional expressions in others. Although there are developmental differences in childrens abilities to identify reasons for the emotional expression, by the age of 5, children generally distinguish differences in emotional cues and identify different types of emotional expressions in others.Integrating Cognition and EmotionThere has been considerable interest in how children interpret, encode, and respond to social environments. One such model that attempts to explain the relationship is the social information processing model (kink Dodge, 1994). The social information processing model assumes that the way in which children understand and interpret social situations at one time influences how they respond behaviorally (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000). In turn, the social information processing model offers an explanation for how children process and interpret cues in a social situation and arrive at a decision that facilitates their understanding of the social environment (Crick Dodge, 1994 Dodge, 1986). For any social interaction, children utilize their past experiences and biologically determined capabilities (e.g., memory store capacity) in line of battle to rapidly assess the situation (Crick Dodge, 1994).To illustrate the social information processing model, imagine a child who gets pushed on the playground by another child. First, the child must encode the social cues (both intern al and external) to determine what happened (attention, encoding) and then determine why it happened (interpretation an accident or on purpose?). In the third stride of the model, the child begins to clarify his or her goal in the social situation (e.g., goal to try out others he/she wont tolerate the behavior). In step quadruplet and five of the model, possible responses to the situation are generated in terms of anticipated outcomes and how those actions relate to the individuals goals (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000). The child may choose to retaliate in response to the other childs actions or the child may choose to not retaliate for fear of the situation escalating. Finally, the majority of children generally choose the most positively evaluated response with look on to goals and anticipated outcomes before the behavior is enacted (e.g., the child ignores the push and walks away Crick Dodge, 1994).The social information processing model has been useful in assessing how children e ncode and interpret social situations. The model, however, does not specify how emotion affects the processing strategy (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000). Lemerise and Arsenio (2000) argue that it is possible to expand Crick and Dodges models explanatory power by integrating emotion processing with social information processing.Before integrating emotion and social information processing, it is important to understand the relationship between the two. Emotions and cognitions may appear kindred because both are types of information processing, but the way each influence human behavior makes them distinct (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000). Emotion is about motivation cognition, on the other hand, concerns knowledge. This view is shared by many functionalist theorists, neurophysiologists, and some cognitive theorists (e.g., Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, Campos, 1994 Damasio, 1994 Oatley Jenkins, 1996).Because cognition and emotion are two distinct processes, an attempt to devise a model that integrates and utilizes the two is pragmatic. In Lemerise and Arsenios (2000) social information processing model, the researchers added and expanded to Crick and Dodges (1994) original concept. In particular, the researchers implemented other emotion processes that could influence accessing and evaluating responses. As an example of this approach, intense emotions can interfere with the steps of Crick and Dodges model where children assess possible responses to a situation (Steps 4 and 5). For example, children with intense emotions may react negatively to a social situation (e.g., becoming easily upset and running away), thereby reducing the probability that they will interpret and encode the situation from the placement of all parties (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000). Intense emotions, in turn, can influence how a child responds in a social situation. In addition, the childs reaction to the social situation may be dependant on whether he/she cares about and wants that person to like him/her (Leme rise Arsenio, 2000). Emotions heavily influence this social decision making process.It is difficult to adhere to a social informational processing strategy without accounting for the influences emotion may serve. Support for the role emotions play in social information processing has been demonstrated in more recent research (e.g., Orobio de Castro, Merk, Koops, Veerman, Bosch, 2005). Specifically, researchers examined the relationship between emotional aspects of social information processing and aggressive boys. by and by hearing a series of vignettes that instilled exacerbation by their peers, participants answered questions concerning social information processing, including feeling of their own emotions, the emotions of others, and emotion regulation. Aggressive boys used less adaptational emotion-regulation strategies, attributed more hostile intent to others actions, and reported less guilt concerning their own actions (Orobio de Castro et al., 2005). For aggressive boys , anger attribution (i.e., encoding of emotions) significantly influenced the interpretation step of the social information processing model, a view that is consistent with Lemerise and Arsenios (2000) model. Clearly, emotions can influence childrens social information processing strategies. By combining emotional processing with social decision making processes, researchers can expand Crick Dodges models explanatory power, perhaps offering go on insight into the influence emotion serves for childrens cognitive abilities (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000).Induction of Positive and Negative AffectResearchers examine emotional influences on social information processing and other social behaviors by essayally inducing emotions and assessing the effects (Bryan, Mathur Sullivan, 1996 Bugental Moore, 1979 Burkitt Barnett, 2006 Carlson, Felleman master, 1983 Masters, Barden Ford, 1979 Stegge, Terwogt Koops, 2001). Inducing affect typically consists of an experimenter having subjects recal l events that make them happy or sad before examining their responses to a variety of social and cognitive lines. These problems can range from measures of altruism, self-gratification, or delay of gratification (Bugental Moore, 1979). For this type of induction mathematical operation, the researcher asks the child to recall and reflect upon a happy or sad past event for approximately 30 seconds to 2 minutes (Bryan et al., 1996). This type of procedure allows psychologists to examine how affective states influence individuals social and psychological behaviors (Bugental Moore, 1979).Pre-recorded videotapes or phonecassettes are another technique used to implement positive or negative affect in children (e.g., Carlson Masters, 1986 Rader Hughes, 2005). The recordings improve the reliability and standardization of the affect inductions. The recording typically follows the same adjective method as the other affect induction studies (e.g., Carlson et al., 1983 Masters et al., 197 9 Moore, Underwood, Rosenhan, 1973)the person reading the script (e.g., actor, puppet) asks the child to ruminate on a past experience that is positive, negative, or neutral for approximately 30 seconds.For any procedural method chosen, it is important to validate if the affect induction actually takes place. There are multiple methods for conducting manipulation checks. Procedures include having two or more experimenters rate the childs mood and assessing interrater agreement (e.g., Carlson Maters, 1986) having participants use a word item check-list to indicate their current mood (e.g., Vosburg, 1998) or comparing if the performance of children in the positive or negative condition differs from those in the neutral condition (e.g., Bugental Moore, 1979 Stegge et al., 2001). As demonstrated in past research, the induction of positive and negative moods is experimentally possible.Positive and Negative Affect and Emotional ProcessingThere are a number of experimental studies that demonstrate the influence of childrens emotional states on a variety of emotional processes and behaviors, such as altruism (Chapman et al., 1987, Miller Jansen op de Haar, 1997), aggression (Harris Siebel, 1975), and self-control (Ceschi Scherer, 2003).One study, in particular, induced positive emotional states in a group of 5-6-year-old children to examine their responses to social comparison situations where the participant was rewarded unfairly, sometimes in the participants favor, sometimes in anothers favor (Carlson Masters, 1986). Children were exposed to one of trio emotion inducing conditions self- cerebrateed happy, other-focused happy, or neutral. After the children focused on their own happy emotional experience (self-focused) or the emotional state of a friend (other-focused) or had no emotional focus (neutral), they and other players received a reward for participating in a game. Children received either more (positive inequality) or less (negative inequality) of an award as compared to the other players. Children in the self-focused happy condition did not demonstrate a reduction in generosity after receiving an inequality of rewards (Carlson Masters, 1986). The authors interpreted their results as supportive of the lay out that positive mood facilitates tolerance of aversive experiences (Carlson Masters, 1986).What these studies did not answer, however, is what influence emotion serves in other social information processes. Specifically, how do inductions of positive or negative affect influence childrens emotion recognition?One research experiment did attempt to investigate the influence childrens own emotional states has on their ability to recognize emotions in others (Carlson et al., 1983). Experimenters induced emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, or neutral affect in eighty 4 and 5 year-old children. The children were then provided with a label of an emotion (e.g. happy) and asked to identify the correct facial expression from a group of photographs of other children who were displaying various emotions. Significant differences in trueness across the mood induction conditions were not found, but childrens own feelings of sadness did influence their perception of sadness in peers (Carlson et al., 1983). Sad participants were not more inaccurate than happy participants when identifying emotions, but when they were inaccurate they tended to overcloud sadness with anger.The induction of positive and negative mood in children appears to have an influence on childrens emotional processing. Negative affective states appear to lead to inaccuracies in the perception of others sadness, whereas positive affective states appear to help children maintain positive emotional experiences, even in the presence of aversive social situations.Influence of Emotional States on Cognition for AdultsDespite the number of studies assessing childrens emotion processing ability, only a few studies have investigated how emotion -directed information processes, such as perception, attention, judgment, and memory recognition and recall, are influenced by the childs own emotional state, whether enduring or temporary (Greene Noice, 1988 Masters et al., 1979 Rader Hughes, 2005). Because of this dearth in the literature, it is useful to review studies conducted with adults. One particularly important study, which examined the role affect plays in adults cognitive performance, induced positive and negative affect through the use of a role-playing technique while participants carried out three cognitive tasks (Izard, Wehmer, Livsey, Jennings, 1965). The cognitive tasks ranged from participants generating as many possible uses for a particular object (multiple-use task), recalling sets of numbers (digit span test), and giving verbalized responses for creative thinking problems. Positive affect increased performance for both the multiple-use task and the creativeness problems as compared to those in the negative affect condition.Some literature supports the finding that positive affect results in higher productivity and creativity (Ashby, Isen, Turken, 1999). Specifically, induced positive affect improved cognitive processes such as memory, judgment, risk-preference, decision-making, creative problem lick, categorization, and logical problem solving (Ashby et al., 1999). Other research, however, does not support the claim that positive affect improves cognitive productivity and creativity. Positive affect may actually interfere with performance on some tasks (e.g., Kaufmann Vosburg, 1997).In an attempt to explain the discrepancy in these results, Forgas (2000, 2002) affect infusion model (AIM) suggests that affect results in inattentive processing for complex tasks. As participants experience positive affective, for example, substantive processing or systematic processing may be hindered, thereby interfering with their ability to solve elaborate and complex problems. Specifically, negat ive moods may facilitate differentiated, analytic processing whereas positive moods may facilitate global, synthetic processing (Forgas, 2000). Negative moods may be more adaptive for cognitive tasks that require one to reduce complex decisions to a series of one-on-one comparisons, thus simplifying the results (i.e., analytic processing). Positive moods, on the other hand, may be more adaptive for cognitive tasks that require one to generate a wide variety of responses, often seeking out all possibilities for a solution (i.e., global processing).Following Forgas (2000, 2002) AIM model, it is clear how research supports the notion that positive and negative affect are adaptive for different types of cognitive tasks. To clarify, some studies show that positive affect facilitates cognitive performance by increasing participants creativity (Ashby et al., 1999 Isen, Daubman Nowicki, 1987 Isen, 2002 Izard et al., 1965). Other research, however, shows that positive affect results in ina ttentive processing, thereby reducing participants creativity and problem-solving (Forgas, 2000 Kaufmann Vosburg, 1997). These seemingly contrasting findings are explained by differences in task specificity. In the research conducted by Kaufmann and Vosburg (1997), for example, positive affect significantly inhibited creative problem solving. After the researchers experimentally induced affect, participants responded to a series of tasks presented in a paper-and-pencil format, and received no outside feedback. Contrastingly, in research conducted by Isen et al. (1987), they used creativity measures such as the candle-problem, which required participants to physically manipulate objects and to come up with as many solutions to the problem as possible. In addition, the participants received feedback, which allowed them to instigate further solutions to the problem. Clearly, the tasks used in each of these studies are distinct. The notion that positive and negative affect are adaptive to different types of cognitive tasks is important because it points out the need to carefully consider the type of cognitive task being performed. Positive or negative moods may facilitate processing for different types of tasks in adults because it is useful to examine how positive or negative moods affect childrens processing in different types of tasks.Influence of Emotional States on Cognition for ChildrenThere are indications that the influences of positive affect on childrens cognitive performance are similar to those in adults (Rader Hughes, 2005). For example, eighth-grade students who were experimentally induced with positive affect showed greater cognitive tractableness than students in the control condition and obtained higher scores on a verbal fluency test (Greene Noice, 1988). Likewise, researchers have examined the effects of emotional states on acquirement (Masters et al., 1979). After the induction of a positive, negative, or neutral emotional state, children completed a series of shape discrimination tasks. The dependent variable in the experiment was how many trials it took the children to achieve perfect mastery for the task (e.g. identifying 12 consecutive trials of shapes correctly). For children in the positive affect condition, positive affect enhanced performance. Contrastingly, for children in the negative condition, negative affect hindered performance dramatically (Masters et al., 1979). In addition, positive affect increased performance for children on a block design task, a contend cognitive task that requires the use of spatial analysis (Rader Hughes, 2005).Research also suggests a relationship between affect and childrens thinking processes (Bryan et al., 1996). Specifically, negative affective states step-down participants efforts for processing cognitive information (Ellis, Thomas, Rodriquez, 1984). Positive affective states, on the other hand, improve participants memory on various tasks, which include mastery of a invidious task (Masters et al., 1979) altruism (Chapman et al., 1987 Miller Jansen op de Haar, 1997) and child compliance (Lay, Waters Park, 1989). In sum, positive affective states increase complex cognitive functions when participants are required to combine information in new and useful ways (e.g., word association and memory tasks, creativity tasks, problem-solving tasks Bryan et al., 1996).Social Information Processing and Cognitive ComplexityChildrens awareness of their own emotional state, in combination with their skill to discern others emotions, allows them to develop more effective social information processing skills. As children become more aware of emotions they or others are experiencing, it facilitates problem-solving (Saarni et al., 2006). In turn, when children know how to respond emotionally to an encounter, it can aid in their decision making strategy, thus influencing behavioral or cognitive processing strategies.Task complexity can negatively influence acc uracy in identifying emotional expressions in others (MacDonald et al., 1996). Specifically, research has shown how incorporating contextual information for an emotion recognition task results in lower levels of performance as compared to a task where children are given the label for the emotional expression (MacDonald et al., 1996). Labeling tasks involve an super easy stimulus (i.e. children are given a word), whereas contextual information tasks involve integrating and synthesizing implicit information (i.e. children must derive a word from the vignette)plexity. paragraph should be eliminated. This is more relevant to cognitive processing strategies rather than levels of task. Adding contextual information to an emotion recognition task, therefore, increases the difficulty of the task, resulting in lower performance, specially for younger children (MacDonald et al. 1996).Past research on childrens emotional recognition has not adequately addressed the influence of childrens own emotional states (positive or negative) on the accuracy of the perception of emotional states in others. Research addressing the topic is minimal only a few studies have approached the issue (e.g., Carlson et al., 1983). In addition, past research has not directly demonstrated how emotion and cognitive task complexity influence childrens ability to recognize emotion in others.Based on the information regarding childrens ability to recognize emotions in others through their facial expressions the developmental differences in childrens facial recognition abilities the influence of emotion on childrens emotion processing and the influence of emotion on adults cognitive processing, researchers can devise an appropriate social information processing model. The model, in effect, should integrate emotion and cognitive processes to determine the influence affect and task complexity have on childrens recognition of emotions in others.The component of the model the present study investigated is how childrens own emotion affects their interpretation of social cues, specifically the emotional expression of others. Inaccurate interpretations will provide potential consequences to childrens subsequent social decision making processes.The Present StudyThe study examined the influence positive and negative affect has on childrens emotion recognition. Children, aged 5-to 8-years, participated because of their ability to identify emotions in others (Fabes et al., 1991, Gnepp Gould, 1985, Saarni et al., 2006). Because emotion processing and cognition are considered an integral part of childrens social competence (Lemerise Arsenio, 2000), the study design combined and evaluated cognition and emotional processes. Specifically, the study investigated how the cognitive complexity of the task interacted with mood effects on emotion recognition performance.In the experiment, children were individually tested. They were first exposed to one of three mood induction conditions (positi ve, negative, or neutral) using a computer setup with a pre-recorded audio file, a method that is consistent with a brief mood induction procedure (Rader Hughes, 2005). For the testing procedure, the experimenter utilized two forms of emotion expressing questions label-b

Reflection Report On Experience In A Hospital

Reflection Report On Experience In A HospitalDuring the final term of my Diagnostic Radiography degree, I attended clinical placement for a total of 11 weeks to gain experience and lend oneself my image techniques in various imaging departments. The placement module provided me with a learning experience in a hospital environment and helped to broaden my clinical skills in a variety of clinical environments. I was noblely assessed by a member of the clinical staff on 2 different imaging functions, a prompt chest roentgen ray and a CT head s sewer, as part of the degree evaluation process. I kept a pensive diary from the first day of my placement to help me record my feelings and thoughts on the inquirys I was asked to perform, the varying affected roles I examined, the sustain forwardcomes of these examinations and any problems or achievements I felt substantial in my time there. The most evidentiary consideration, however, was in respect to my clinical represent min ds. I allow for be using this diary as a means to help me reflect on my experiences on this placement and on how I have developed both professionally and personally.What is reflection and why does reflection help me in my learning? Reflection is a process of gradual self-awargonness, critical appraisal of the social world and how it transforms your thinking. Johns and Freshwater (2005) state that reflection is an lively process that will enable me and other health care professionals to gain a lateer understanding of any experience with patients. One definition that is appropriate for scholarly person radiographers is Reflection in the context of learning is a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to jumper cable to new understandings and appreciations (Boud et al, 1985). The use of a pondering journal during my final placement helped me with my pensive development as it would have been di fficult for me to remember all the legion(predicate) thoughts and feelings I experienced over an 11 week period. Kennison (2002) sees the thoughtful clinical journal as a method in which a learner may write about clinical learning experiences and reflect on them. He considers this as a beneficial tool of reflection which non only improves the learners authorship skills but also essentially helps to reflect on their practice, explore reactions, discover relationships and connect new meanings to past experiences. On the other hand Nefountainhead (1992) states that any reflective practice is reliant on memory and interpretation of events selective memory is a particular problem especially following a negative event. I gouge relate to this as I did find that a balance was required when recalling certain events, I was inclined to remember more negative situations than supportive ones, these negative feelings and thoughts of particular events stayed with me longer and had a bigger impact on me.If I am to approach this account of my clinical placement reflectively I must choose an appropriate model for reflection. Johns (2002) found that there are several models have been developed to guide the process of reflection. The first model I will use to aid my analysis and to explore my feelings is the Gibbs (1988) reflective cycles/second. This model has 6 stopping points which are Description, Feelings, Evaluation, Analysis, Conclusion and Action Plan. I feel this cycle allows analysis to install sense of the experience, it takes into account a sequence of feelings and emotions which play a part in a particular event and plumps you to a terminus where you can reflect upon the experience and what steps you would take if the situation happened again. This model can also be used through different levels of reflection from tiro to advanced. The second model I am employing is Boud et al (1985). This model helps reflect before, during and after an action and will be ideal to explore my feelings and experiences through the hearty of my placement. Boud et al (1985) identify reflection as a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations. This reflective model is therefore appropriate for radiographers and other health professionals to adopt in critical reflection exercises. Boud et al, (1985) Schon, (1995) state that the development of the abilities to be reflective and critically reflective in practice can be perfected through busy, repeated, guided practice.Model of reflection (Boud et al 1985 from Johns 1995)Stage 1 collapse to experienceDescribe the experience, recollect what happenedNotice what happened/ how you felt/ what you didStage 2 Attend to feelingsAcknowledge negative feelings but dont let them form a bulwarkWork with confirmative outcomesStage 3 Re-evaluate the experienceConnect ideas and feelings o f the experience to those you had on reflectionConsider options and choicesStage 4 LearningHow do I feel about this experience?Could I have dealt with it better?What have I learnt from this experience?Starting at the beginning of the Gibbs (1988) cycle and Boud et al (1985) framework, I am asked to describe the two different clinical staged assessments that I completed and my recollection of thoughts and feelings before, during and after the process.My timetable actually dictated that I would perform my mobile chest x-ray assessment first. This was due to me spending the majority of my first few weeks on placement in the General Department where I would be performing this type of procedure regularly on ward patients. I thought it best to be assessed during the third week after I had performed the examination many times and would be feeling confident. At the start of the second week of my placement I felt confident that I would be vigorous for this assessment in week 3 and was looki ng forward to my 2 timetabled days in the Accident and Emergency (AE) Department prior to working in the General Department again. On the first morning in AE the radiographer in charge asked if I had any staged assessments to be evaluated on, I advised her that I had a mobile chest x-ray to do but I was happy to do this in the General Department the next week erstwhile I had gained more practice. Unexpectedly, the radiographer suggested that she would assess me that morning and that I should carry out the examination on the next patient that required a chest x-ray in resuscitation.My first instinct was to put this off and decline, as in my mind I had planned to be assessed on a ward patient the following week. I also felt panicked as I did not have much practice using the mobile x-ray railroad car in the resuscitation theater at this point and the surprise of the request took away some of my confidence. This was a test of my mental strength and as a upcoming health care worker I would have to get used to making quick decisions and rising to challenges on a daily basis. My response was to agree, which impress myself, I accepted that I was going to be assessed that day. I did not have my assessment sheet and criteria to hand but I managed to find another(prenominal) student who had the information and photocopied it. The morning passed very quickly and I was worried every time a request card was passed through to the viewing field of battle from the AE staff as I thought it would my turn to carry out my assessment. When the request eventually arrived it was to image a 64 year old staminate that had breathing problems and a history of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD), he was sitting upright on a trolley in the resuscitation area of Accident Emergency. A chest x-ray was required and so I checked the request card and the patients history on the hospital information transcription (HIS) system to check for any previous history and corresponding images, I washed my hands, collected a cassette and proceeded to take the mobile unit into the required area. The radiographer go with me and asked the patient for his consent and his co-operation to have a student perform the x-ray, the patient agreed. She then observed the whole procedure to evaluate my performance.The chest x-ray procedure was carried out routinely as an erect, antero-posterior view, the patient was very co-operative and aware of the situation around him which do it easier for him to understand and carry out the breathing operating instructions I was giving him. The resulting image showed prominence of hilar vasculature and was an acceptable diagnostic image. I received an excellent assessment mark from the radiographer and although I was relieved that it was over I still felt pleased with myself that I had carried out the mobile x-ray to a high level. I am thankful however that I kept my reflective diary on this occasion as everything happened so quickly and n ot to the plan that I anticipated that I benefit from reading my mad conflicts that I experienced at a later date. This feeling is reinforced by Schn (1987) who argued that reflection is not a simple process and that practitioners adopt coaching and require the use of reflective diaries as tools for dealing with practice problems.The second assessment on the other hand was not as disagreeable as the above experience and I feel I coped with the anticipation of this assessment better. I was timetabled for a week in the CT Department and so I knew that I would definitely be assessed then on a CT head scan. After discussion with the radiographer in charge it was agreed that we would sojourn until the Friday to be assessed to ensure that I had plenty practice in carrying out CT head examinations. On the day of the assessment I decided to be assessed on the first patient to attend for a CT head examination. I did not feel as nervous as the first assessment as the arrangements had been made at the start of the week and I knew when I was being assessed. I was also confident in my ability to use the CT scanner and my positioning skills. The first patient to arrive for a CT head scan was a 69 year old female who presented with a history of persistent headaches and dizziness. On checking her identification I found that the lady was hard of hearing and I had to make sure to explain the procedure slowly, distinctly and just about louder than usual. I instantly became concerned that the patient would not hear the instructions given immediately prior to the examination, e.g. that she should re primary(prenominal) very still and not move her head which is very important in achieving a clear and diagnostic head scan. This was a scenario that again I had not predicted. Radiographers, medical students, and nurses similar are constantly faced with unique and ambiguous problems in the clinical setting, where they are required to stop, think, and problem solve in the middle of activities or procedures they are carrying out and is a challenging part of the job.I proceeded to explain to the patient prior to positioning her in the CT scanner what the examination would entail as she would be lying in a supine position with her head resting on a head support which would further obscure her hearing. She acknowledged my instructions and I felt happy to continue with the examination. The patient was positioned head first into the scanner no intravenous contrast was necessary and the patient raised on the table so the lasers were at the level of the orbitomeatal line. I then carried out the appropriate CT head protocol on the computer system, the scout was carried out to make sure the patient was in the correct position and the x-ray beam was set at an angle along the base of the skull to prevent spare radiation of the patients orbits, the slice thickness was selected between 5mm and 10 mm and the CT examination was started. Everything went smoothly and the pa tient was not found to have any significant pathology showing on the scan. The radiographer in charge was pleased with my technique and anatomy knowledge and gave me a good mark for my assessment.Boud et al (1985) suggest that In reflective practice, it is necessary to gain an appropriate balance between the analysis of knowledge and thoughts, and the analysis of feelings. It is also important to focus on positive feelings as well as trying to deal with negative feelings, in order for the process to be constructive. Bulman Schutz. As I follow Gibbs (1988) cycle to explore my emotions and feelings I am aware that this step in Boud et als (1985) framework becomes appropriate. He advises to acknowledge negative feelings but also to not let them develop a barrier. I did experience negative feelings, more so in the first staged assessment. This has been an emotion that has surfaced from the start of my training and continued until this point, although the fear factor has reduced signifi cantly. I sometimes do let my nerves get the better of me but as I have come through this degree my worrying has decrease and my confidence has grown. Wondrack (2001) acknowledges that fear and feelings of guilt often accompany emotions which spring from a lack of confidence in how to resolve situations. On reflecting in past modules I have highlighted my nervousness and so I do not find it a barrier but a test of my determination now. With regards to my first staged assessment I was nervous and anxious as I was put on the spot and not as fully prepared mentally as I would have liked. I think I coped as well as I did due to the fact that I have been learning how to alter to changing circumstances since my first year placement. I know that I can deal with what is thrown at me now and ask questions if I am in any doubt of my actions. My general clinical placements have all required for me to think on my feet, in the case of the patient who was hard of hearing, the main problem was co mmunication. Schn (1993, 1987 cited Moon 2001, p. 3) focuses on reflection in professional knowledge and its development. He identified two types of reflection which are reflection in action and reflection on action. Schn proposes that these types of reflections are used in unique situations, where the practitioner is unable to apply theories or techniques previously learnt through formal education (Moon 2001). It would therefore seem that reflection in action and reflection on action are highly beneficial to the healthcare environment as practitioners are working with individuals who are more often than not, text book examples. Reflection is a fundamental part of my radiography practice and future career, as all patients are unique this means that every time I image a patient I may have to approach it differently as I will need to consider the individual needs of the patient. The outcomes of both my staged assessments were very good and a positive result did come after my initial negative feelings.Following both the reflective frameworks, I began to analyse what made me feel the way I did. As I considered the pros and cons as suggested by Gibbs (1988) I found that it was reasonable to feel the way I did and that it is all part of being a student. Every other student that I had spoken to felt nervous when both completing the staged assessments and facing new situations with patients. It was to be expected in the lead up to potentially decorous a radiographer. The cons were that I showed my weakness to the radiographer and maybe came across as less confident as I should have, the pros were that I used these feelings to push myself forward and it made me want to do my best to prove that I was capable of producing good diagnostic images.Reflection is more than just thinking about something, it should be an active process, which should result in learning, changing behaviours, perspectives or practices (Boud et al, 1985). By reflecting I have certainly changed my perspectives and behaviours on clinical placement. I am a more positive student and person due to the challenging situations and people that I have encountered. Where I previously became flustered I now take a deep breath and think through the situation and take my time. I have the knowledge to back up my skills and vice versa now so it is my application of these tools that can move me forward. Gibbs (1988) cycle concludes by asking what could I have done differently, both staged assessments were not extreme cases and I was lucky to examine co-operative patients. I would not have done anything differently in the practical aspect. Experience will help me to become more confident in my own skills and capabilities and will help me in adapting to change quickly. This is where I prefer Boud et als (1985) framework as it encourages you to reflect on how you feel about the experience and what you have learned. Gibbs (1988) is slightly more negative and asks what would you change and do di fferently. I was unable to turn my nerves and emotions off and on but I could learn to control them and make them work for me.From following both Boud et al (1985) and Gibbs (1988) models of reflection I have analysed the situation in detail in a logical order. These experiences have been immensely helpful in evaluating my emotional reactions and professional limitations in the clinical setting. Therefore, my diary has been an essential tool in my development. According to Maggs Biley (2000) evaluating practice through reflection can bring advantages. The challenge is to recognize and use these advantages, together with the knowledge they generate.

Impact of Technology on Print Media

Impact of Technology on strike MediaPrint and electronic media plays an important role in converse effectively as the world has been globalized. The technology used for communication should not be overlooked, because the interchange of information is necessary in current era. Print and electronic media has globalized the world. The news or communication can be done easily from corner to corner just in few seconds.Technology has impacted the communication in a positive way. In the current world the communication has been distributed between print and electronic media. These two Medias ar playing a vital role in communicating between individuals and the society.News, comment, information and entertainment, are the complex set of report, and the arrangement of these contents differs from paper to paper. Most people bring their daily paper to match their specific tastes, and individual newspapers have developed in different ways to provide for these.Many changes have taken beat over the period, in the newspapers. The newspapers are filled with advertisements and have many pages on carrying different news. Today journalism has become one of the prosperous professions (Oghakpor, 2007). The number of newspapers has uprise sharply which has do the communication to its optimum level whilst profits have as well boomed. Development of information and communication technology has made the work of newspaper publication easy and less laborious.Todays newspapers have lots of investigative stories/reports. This contributes to bringing in light big scandals and scams resulting into fall of a person. Which creates negative influences the society and shows that the technology is not been used for the purpose in the right way, as it has to be used for.Magazines charm to an expanding range of reading flavours and happiness. They are designed for standardized or fussy interest groups. Regardless of their design for special groups, they developed as a mass medium becaus e they appeal to large numbers in a national market that cut across social, economic and educational class lines (Oghakpor, 2007).The magazines can be categorized into two different categories, General interest magazines and special interest magazines. General interest magazines attempt to cater to a wide variety of reading interests. Special interest magazines are mainly focused on one thing. For instance, The Women magazine covers all the things about the women while, Muscles magazine covers all the stuff about building the muscles of either men or women.Its most notable social function however, is correlation that is, interpreting the society by bringing together diverse facts, trends and sequences of events. According to Kipphan 2001, Magazines in essence, are the great interpreters of what is happening in society. at that place are several magazines in the world, which are published internationally as well, so that people can benefit from them. Or people from the foreign coun tries order the magazines to tolerate update, although most of the magazines can be viewed online.According to Hamelink Linn 1994, magazines have been much more visually innovative than newspapers. Their covers blaze from newsstands and market racks, thus attracting the readers attention with colour and win of advertisements besides their articles. Magazines are published according to the information gathered, i.e. weekly, fortnightly etc.These are basi announcey news magazines but they include sections on arts, culture, sports, films, business, politics, industry, and environment. There are about 500 such general interest magazines focusing on news and current affairs, having largest readership.Textbooks, other books, booklets, pamphlets, brochures, folders, periodicals, wall newspapers, publicity and promotional literature also constitute media for mass reading, information and enlightenment, they less extensively used as compared to the newspapers and magazines, are called the best way of effective communication. Books are non-periodical printed publication of at least(prenominal) 49 pages excluding the cover page, published in any country and are made useable to public.These are published as weeklies, fortnightlies, quarterlies, annuals or dailies, so magazines do. There are bimonthlies and half year lies also.Electronic communication has become almost an essential part of peoples lives. The Internet has been the catalyst for electronic communication, and rarely in homophile history has anything risen to such prominence in such a short period of time (Hirst Harrison, 2007). There are now many ways to communicate electronically, with, no doubt, more variety to come in the near future. Currently, Televisions, radios, internet, mobile technologies, ipads, e-books, e-magazines etc. are versatile ways to communication technology.Over internet, netmail has had its critics, notably for the brevity of messages and for the rapidity of reply, which often negat es clear thought. But all new things will have critics. Writing to someone by conventional netmail and waiting for a response takes days or weeks. Waiting sometimes just a few minutes for a response by electronic mail seemed quite magical in the early days of the internet. Now this is taken for granted. The problem of spam has never been dealt with satisfactorily, but being able to email photographs on the day they were taken to a loved one on the other side of the world makes up for some of the negatives.Mobile technology has made a tremendous change in terms of communication. In current years the phone contains the features of 3G internet facility which is called the fastest internet on mobile, through which the communication and sharing knowledge becomes easier. Facebook, tweeter, internet browsing, Skype, VoIP technologies can be excessed anywhere without any hurdle. Similarly, Ipads and IPods have also made paradigm change in this global world. It facilitates in the same way as smart phones does, although they are bigger in size.Newsgroups and chat rooms began as early types of social media. Newsgroups rely on peoples circuit card messages to a relevant group, and members of that group can then comment instantaneously. In recent years, newsgroups have, to a large extent, been replaced by slick social-networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace and Twitter. call on the carpet rooms still have a dubious reputation on the net, because though they can be great places for friends spread around the globe to interpret up, unwelcome visitors will often use them inappropriately. Standalone video conferencing, used for business, has also now been matched by instant-messaging programs.Social media may be seen by many as even more important than email now. Facebook and MySpace have an email facility and instant messaging, and Twitter has a direct-message and instant reply facility. Instant messaging, which is also available from the likes of Yahoo and MSN, is bec oming increasingly more advanced. Whereas in the early days of Yahoo Messenger you could save money on a phone call to someone overseas, now you can not only talk but look at a live video image of that person at the same time.It might be concluded from this that the communication technology have a great impact on the print media and electronic media. Newspapers, magazines, broachers, newsletters, pamphlets have made the vigorous change in communication. All these have to face different audiences and are mainly the most important technological tools to communicate and deliver the message. Despite, the electronic media is massively taking place of print media and globalizing this village. Mobile devices, Ipads, Ipods, Television, radios have made the thing accessible within few seconds.

The Bullying Crisis in America Essay -- School Bullying Essays

Schools do not talk ab fall out it, parents do not know how to stop it from happening, nevertheless so many suffer from it, push around. determent has become the biggest growing issue in the world. So many people go through the day in silence while struggling to not let bullying affect them, but it does. Bullying happens in so many different ways, but no one ever talks about it. Everyday 160,000 people suffer from being bullied at school and half of those people will try to seat suicide because of it (Karmazin). Imagine yourself walking on campus, and all of a sudden another student starts calling you names. This is what so many students fear every day. atomic number 53 in every four students is a victim of some kind of bullying. Why does this happen? Bullying has become the fastest growing problem in schools today. Bullying can take many forms, and students that are victims of bullying are affected in different ways, and suicide is often the greatest effect that is happening. Bullying has reached the epidemic level in schools however, realizing the psychological effects cause by bullying, and suicide has become a growing result of it, and in everyday demeanor across all the oceans of the world it is time to take preventative measures to reduce and stop bullying from happening needs to be taken.When a person thinks of bullying happening in schools, they in vision on thing a big, mean boy picking out a younger, smaller student and saying, leave alone me all your money nerd at that point the bully picking up the victim and flipping them upside down to make the money come out of the pockets. When the actuality is bullying is not always that plainly shown. Bullying does not necessarily have to physical violence in order for a situation to be considered bullying. Tee... ...ersonal interview. 23 Oct. 2013.Karmazin, Karen S. Facts about Bullying for High School Students. Home. University at Buffalo, n.d.. Web. 24 Oct. 2013Kelley, Hall Megan, and Carrie Jones. Dear Bully 70 Authors Tell Their Stories. New York, NY HarperTeen, 2011. Print. Sandavol, Jesse. Personal interview. 23 Oct. 2013. Sutton, Jon. Book Review Breaking the Cycle of Violence Interventions for Bullying and Victimization. Richard J. Hazler. Taylor & Francis, London, 1996. No. of Pages 222(Paperback). ISBN 1-56032-509-7. Early Development and Parenting 6.2 (1997) 93. Print.United States. California Department of Education. - School Environment (CA Dept of Education). N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013. Yerger, William, and Cliff Gehret. Understanding and Dealing With Bullying in Schools.The Educational Forum 75.4 (2011) 315-26. ERIC. Web. 3 Nov. 2013.

Sophocles - Antigone Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Power of ChoiceChoices affect all of our lives. We are always go about with choices. What we do with those choices will determine how are lives will turn out, what destiny lies before us and even what will become of us. The choices we make are in our complete control. Whether we make choices during the heat of the moment or with an open mind at that place are going to be consequences that follow whether good or big are can only be blamed on us. Sophocless Antigone portrays human emotions and consequences that follow two distinct choices. We can broaden the spectrum by saying that Creon represents frequent policy and Antigone represents individual conscience. According to E.S. Shuckburgh we must examine which is more important state law or divine conscience. (Shuckburgh xviii) Antigone is a story about two mass who choose to make choices that each are passionate about and the consequences that follow. I can argue that the choice made by Antigone was noble and honorable becau se she was standing(a) up for what she believed in. Antigone was trying to do what she felt was the right. She was standing up for her family. I recall that many people would feel the same way in her situation. Antigone valued to offer her brother the burial that she felt he deserved. Although it did not seem as though she agreed with what her brother had done she did believe in family loyalty.When Antigone approached Ismene with her proposal, Ismene state no. She justified her decision by telling Antigone that they were already punished and that there was no need to make matters worse for the two of them by defying Creons law.Oh my sister, think- think how our own father died, hated, Mimi 2his reputation in ruins, driven on by the crimes he brought to light himselfto gouge out his eyes with his own hands- thusly mother&8230his mother and wife, both in one, mutilating her life in the twisted noose- and last, our two brothers dead in a single day, both shedding there won blood, p oor suffering boys,battling out their common destiny hand-to-hand. ( Sophocles 60-69)Isemene tries to say ... ...always be a part of our life, what we so with those choices will determine our future as they did in the case of Creon and Antigone.Mimi 5Works CitedDavid Bender, Bruno Leone, Scott Barbour, Bonnie Szumski, Don Nardo, eds. Readings of Sophocles. San Diego Greenhaven Press, 1997.Sir Richard C. Jebb, E. S. Shuckburgh, abs. Introduction. Antigone. By Shuckburgh. New York Press Syndicate of the U of Cambridge, 1987 Sophocles. Antigone. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Ed. Maynard Mack. New York W.W. Norton & Compay, Inc., 1995. 632-667

Literary Allusions in Eliots The Hollow Men :: Eliot The Hollow Men Essays

Literary Allusions in Eliots The Hollow Men Scholars have long endeavored to identify the sources of dissimilar images in T. S. Eliots work, so densely layered with literary allusions. As Eliot himself noted in his essay Philip Massinger (1920), One of the surest of tests is the way in which a poet borrows. Im full-blown poets imitate, mature poets steal bad poets deface what they take, and good poets make it into something better, or at least something different. In Eliots poem The Hollow Men, several sources have been posited for the hollow custody . . . the stuffed men / leaning together . . . filled with straw (lines 1-2). B. C. Southam notes three that the hollow . . . stuffed men are reminiscent of the effigies burned in celebration of Guy Fawkes twenty-four hour period that gibe to Valerie Eliot, the poet had in mind the marionette in Stravinskys Petrouchka and finally, that the straw-stuffed effigies are associated with harvest rituals celebrating the death of the fertility god or Fisher King.(n1) In 1963, some old age in the first place Southams summary, John Vickery had proffered an interpretation similar to the third point mentioned. He noted that the opening lines of The Hollow Men with their image of straw-filled creatures, recalls The Golden Boughs account of the straw-man who represents the dead musical note of fertility that revives in the spring when the apple trees begin to blossom.(n2) Whereas Eliot may well have had any or all of these ideas in mind, I suggest that at that place is yet another connection to be made, namely between Eliots hollow . . . stuffed men and the Roman ritual of the Argei. In 1922, a few years before Eliot wrote The Hollow Men, W. Warde Fowler described the particulars of this ritual, which was to him a fascinating puzzle and the first curiosity that enticed him into the study of Roman religion, in his book Roman Religious Experience.(n3) The rite according to Fowler occurs each year on the ides of May, which is in my view rather magical than religious, though the ancients themselves looked upon it as a kind of purification, namely the casting into the Tiber from the Pons Sublicius of twenty-four or twenty-seven straw puppets by the Vestal Virgins in the presence of the magistrates and pontifices. Recently an attempt has been made by Wissowa to prove that this strange ceremony was not primitive, yet simply a case of substitution of puppets for real human victims as late as the age of the Punic wars.